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Table 1 Sociodemographic and dietary characteristics at baseline, stratified by overweight at baseline and by GDM status during the follow-up period

From: Associations of overweight and gestational diabetes mellitus with free sugars from solid and liquid sources: cross-sectional and nested case-control analyses

Baseline characteristics

Stratified by weight status at baseline (N = 6305)

Delivery between 2004 and 2017 (N = 1842)

Overweight N = 2505

Not overweight N = 3800

Cases (GDM) N = 113

Controls (no GDM)

N = 1729

Overweight, number (%)1

2505 (100)

0 (0)

63 (55.6)

568 (32.9)

Age, years, mean (SD)

30.3 (1.24)

21.1 (2.30)

22.8 (7.16)

20.6 (5.70)

Caucasian, number (%)2

2177 (86.9)

3279 (86.3)

85 (75.2)

1475 (85.3)

Immigrant, number (%)

155 (6.19)

364 (9.58)

13 (11.5)

113 (6.53)

Food insecure, number (%)

322 (12.9)

274 (7.21)

17 (15.0)

119 (6.88)

Rural residence, number (%)

590 (23.6)

781 (20.5)

19 (16.8)

370 (21.4)

Current smoker, number (%)

746 (29.8)

823 (21.7)

34 (30.1)

446 (25.6)

Active, number (%)

1117 (44.6)

2103 (55.3)

56 (49.6)

926 (53.6)

BMI, kg/m2, mean (SD)

30.5 (5.90)

21.2 (2.31)

27.1 (6.78)

24.5 (5.73)

Total energy intake kcal, mean (SD)

1815 (793)

1996 (850)

1885 (868)

1940 (849)

Amount of food intake reported in the last 24 h compared to usual intake, number (%)3

Much more:

197 (7.86)

Much more:

244 (6.42)

Much more:

9 (7.96)

Much more:

149 (8.62)

Typical:

1821 (72.7)

Typical:

2967 (78.0)

Typical:

88 (77.9)

Typical:

1307 (75.6)

Much less:

484 (19.3)

Much less:

588 (15.5)

Much less:

16 (14.2)

Much less:

273 (15.8)

Free Sugar Intake: % of total energy, mean (SD)

 Overall free sugars

17.2 (12.9)

18.1 (12.9)

14.8 (12.1)

18.5 (13.6)

 Free sugars in solids

7.90 (7.80)

8.30 (7.60)

5.60 (5.40)

7.81 (7.9)

 Free sugars in liquids

10.2 (11.0)

10.5 (10.9)

10.2 (11.5)

11.6 (11.9)

 Non-sugar carbohydrates4

27.9 (9.20)

28.2 (9.90)

28.3 (10.3)

28.4 (10.2)

Fats and Proteins: % of total energy, mean (SD)

 Saturated fats

10.2 (4.25)

10.4 (4.25)

11.3 (6.55)

10.2 (4.20)

 Monounsaturated fats

12.5 (4.75)

12.2 (4.47)

13.1 (5.05)

12.3 (4.62)

 Polyunsaturated fats

5.54 (2.76)

5.40 (2.68)

5.64 (2.73)

5.37 (2.75)

 Protein

15.7 (6.16)

14.9 (5.41)

16.0 (6.94)

14.8 (5.49)

Other, mean (SD)

 Sodium, g

2.72 (1.47)

2.91 (1.61)

3.68 (2.34)

3.79 (2.30)

 Potassium, g

2.60 (1.24)

2.77 (1.34)

3.27 (1.79)

3.44 (1.97)

 Fibre, g

13.7 (8.30)

14.9 (8.90)

16.8 (10.3)

18.2 (11.7)

 Daily fruit juice, number (%)

1055 (42.1)

2063 (54.3)

57 (50.4)

859 (49.7)

  ≥ 5 servings of fruit and vegetables daily, number (%)

660 (26.3)

1193 (31.4)

22 (19.5)

433 (25.0)

  1. 1Overweight in adolescents (12–19 years old) was defined as corresponding to BMI above the 85th percentile. BMI percentiles were age- and sex- standardized in accordance with Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).18 Adults (20 years and older) were classified as overweight at a BMI equal to or above 25 kg/m2.
  2. 2Ethnicity was based on self-identified ethnocultural group. Among non-Caucasians, South Asians, Chinese, Blacks and Latin Americans comprised 27, 23, 19 and 6%, respectively.
  3. 3Free sugars are defined as all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices. Liquid sources of free sugars from the CCHS survey included beverages, bottled sauces, honey and syrups, gravies, soups, and creams.
  4. 3Responses for this variable were self-reported by participants when completing the 24-h dietary recall interview. 4 participants reported “do not know” in their response (overweight: 3, not overweight: 1).
  5. 4Non-sugar carbohydrates were defined as total carbohydrate intake – total sugar intake – total fibre intake and expressed as percent of total energy intake.
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BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

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