Table 1 Description of study areas

Khartoum

Umbadda

High-density poor urban community. Main sources of income are assorted low-wage jobs and small-scale trade/business. Education level is generally high, particulary for girls as boys tend to leave secondary school to support their family.

A typical house is around 300 square meters, with a small yard and small and connected rooms. Usually crowded households (7+ members) with nuclear families(i.e. no extended family members)

Tuti Island

An island in the heart of the city. Close-knit middle/low-class acommunity. Most household incomes come from freelance trade. High educational levels. A typical house is around 400 square meters, with scaterred and big rooms. Usually crowded households hosting extended families.

North Kordofan

El-Obeid

An urban middle-class community. Most of the residents work as public servants and traders. A typical house is around 500 square meters, has scaterred and large rooms with a yard. Usually housing nuclear families.

Blue Nile

Damazin North

A peri-urban poor community situated in the capital of Blue Nile state. Most residents work as manual laborers and small-scale farmers or traders. A typical house is around 400 square meters, three rooms (one for guests located near the enerance), kitchen and outdoor space (known as rakooba). Houses have piped water and regular electricity supply.

Gezira

Aldanagla village

A rural community situated around a 50-min drive from Madani city, the capital of Gezira state. The houses are typically large, can reach up to 2000 square meters. A typical house has large rooms situated near to each other and big yards. The houses host extended families living together, usually divided between married siblings, with separate living quarters for guests.

South Darfur

Dereij IDP camp

Internally-displaced persons’ (IDP) camp situated four kilometres away from Nyala city, the capital of South Darfur state. Residents are long-standing IDPs, mostly poor and dependent on humanitarian aid. Houses are interconnected with poorly organized roads. A typical house is less than 100 square meters, built from temporary materials.