From: Geospatial analysis of determinants of neonatal mortality in Ghana
Variables | MODEL 1 | MODEL 2 | MODEL 3 | MODEL 4 | MODEL 5 | MODEL 6 | MODEL 7 | MODEL 8 | MODEL 9 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | aRR [95% CI] | |
HOUSEHOLD FACTORS | |||||||||
Age of the household head | 1.01 [1.01–1.02]** | 0.99 [0.97–1.00] | 1.02 [1.01–1.02]** | 1.00 [0.99–1.02] | 1.00 [0.99–1.02] | ||||
Sex of household head | |||||||||
Male | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Female | 0.98 [0.74–1.29] | 0.62 [0.40–0.97]* | 0.90 [0.67–1.22] | 0.64 [0.40–1.03] | 0.76 [0.49–1.18] | ||||
Place of residence | |||||||||
Urban | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Rural | 1.44 [1.00–2.08] | 1.24 [0.77–2.00] | 1.35 [0.92–1.99] | 1.25 [0.74–2.09] | 1.39 [0.81–2.39] | ||||
Zone | |||||||||
Coastal | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Southern | 1.19 [0.89–1.6] | 0.93 [0.67–1.29] | 1.09 [0.81–1.48] | 0.87 [0.61–1.23] | 0.76 [0.44–1.32] | ||||
Northern | 1.25 [0.85–1.84] | 1.15 [0.73–1.83] | 1.28 [0.85–1.94] | 1.20 [0.71–2.02] | 1.35 [0.49–3.72] | ||||
Household size | 0.90[0.85–0.97]** | 0.85 [0.76–0.94]** | 0.83 [0.76–0.92]*** | 0.80 [0.71–0.9]*** | 0.82 [0.73–0.92]** | ||||
Wealth index | |||||||||
Poorest | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Poorer | 0.83 [0.57–1.21] | 0.77 [0.51–1.15] | 0.86 [0.59–1.27] | 0.80 [0.52–1.22] | 0.92 [0.60–1.40] | ||||
Middle | 1.17 [0.74–1.84] | 0.97 [0.56–1.67] | 1.09 [0.67–1.78] | 0.97 [0.54–1.75] | 1.1 [0.60–2.01] | ||||
Richer | 0.99 [0.56–1.75] | 0.71 [0.36–1.42] | 0.93 [0.51–1.71] | 0.72 [0.34–1.51] | 0.81 [0.37–1.80] | ||||
Richest | 1.15 [0.63–2.12] | 0.96 [0.43–2.13] | 0.84 [0.43–1.65] | 0.77 [0.33–1.82] | 0.98 [0.38–2.54] | ||||
Household access to an improved water source | |||||||||
Improved | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Unimproved | 1.07 [0.77–1.47] | 0.98 [0.67–1.44] | 0.95 [0.67–1.36] | 0.87 [0.57–1.34] | 0.88 [0.57–1.34] | ||||
Household access to an improved sanitation facility | |||||||||
Improved | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Unimproved | 0.78 [0.56–1.08] | 0.85 [0.58–1.24] | 0.73 [0.52–1.05] | 0.73 [0.47–1.13] | 0.65 [0.41–1.02] | ||||
Have bed net | |||||||||
No net | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Have net | 0.98 [0.72–1.33] | 0.89 [0.62–1.27] | 1.05 [0.75–1.47] | 0.88 [0.60–1.29] | 0.95 [0.63–1.43] | ||||
CHILD FACTORS | |||||||||
The sex of the child | |||||||||
Male | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Female | 0.82 [0.64–1.04] | 0.83 [0.65–1.06] | 0.75 [0.56–1]* | 0.74 [0.55–1]* | 0.72 [0.53–1.00] | ||||
Multiple births | |||||||||
Single birth | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Multiple births | 4.10 [2.59–6.49]*** | 4.99 [3.01–8.28]*** | 3.29 [1.73–6.26]*** | 3.88 [1.96–7.68]*** | 3.42 [1.63–7.17]** | ||||
Birth order | |||||||||
1st child | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
2nd child | 0.39 [0.08–2.00] | 0.36 [0.07–1.88] | 0.43 [0.08–2.38] | 0.4 [0.07–2.31] | 0.5 [0.09–2.91] | ||||
3rd child | 0.47 [0.09–2.48] | 0.46 [0.08–2.54] | 0.39 [0.07–2.26] | 0.38 [0.06–2.38] | 0.46 [0.07–2.94] | ||||
4th + child | 0.55 [0.1–2.94] | 0.62 [0.11–3.41] | 0.14 [0.02–0.84]* | 0.14 [0.02–0.91]* | 0.17 [0.03–1.09] | ||||
Birth spacing | |||||||||
First child | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
< 24 months | 3.25 [0.62–16.97] | 3.95 [0.74–21.15] | 2.16 [0.35–13.25] | 2.3 [0.36–14.59] | 2.02 [0.32–12.75] | ||||
24–35 months | 1.66 [0.32–8.70] | 2.00 [0.37–10.85] | 1.14 [0.19–6.89] | 1.23 [0.19–7.75] | 0.84 [0.14–5.02] | ||||
36+ months | 1.28 [0.25–6.49] | 1.37 [0.26–7.21] | 0.66 [0.12–3.74] | 0.62 [0.10–3.68] | 0.48 [0.08–2.87] | ||||
Perceived birth weight | |||||||||
Very large | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Large | 0.75 [0.51–1.11] | 0.78 [0.53–1.16] | 0.8 [0.48–1.34] | 0.8 [0.47–1.34] | 0.88 [0.5–1.53] | ||||
Average | 0.79 [0.53–1.18] | 0.77 [0.51–1.16] | 1.02 [0.6–1.73] | 0.94 [0.54–1.63] | 1.05 [0.58–1.90] | ||||
Small | 1.53 [1.03–2.26]* | 1.48 [0.99–2.2] | 1.85 [1.09–3.16]* | 1.74 [1.02–3.00]* | 2.08 [1.19–3.63]* | ||||
MATERNAL FACTORS | |||||||||
Mothers age at first-child | |||||||||
< 18 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
18–29 | 1.03 [0.74–1.43] | 1.11 [0.79–1.57] | 0.93 [0.65–1.34] | 0.98 [0.67–1.44] | 1.15 [0.75–1.76] | ||||
30+ | 1.31 [0.55–3.11] | 1.57 [0.65–3.82] | 1.05 [0.42–2.62] | 1.14 [0.44–2.92] | 1.03 [0.36–2.91] | ||||
The current marital status of the mother | |||||||||
Never married | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Married | 0.95 [0.59–1.54] | 0.72 [0.42–1.26] | 1.06 [0.64–1.77] | 0.87 [0.48–1.55] | 1.23 [0.67–2.25] | ||||
Not married but living together | 0.87 [0.50–1.52] | 0.68 [0.36–1.28] | 0.89 [0.50–1.61] | 0.71 [0.36–1.40] | 0.89 [0.46–1.74] | ||||
Literacy | |||||||||
Cannot read | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Able to read part of sentence | 0.67 [0.36–1.22] | 0.62 [0.32–1.18] | 0.73 [0.39–1.39] | 0.7 [0.36–1.37] | 0.66 [0.31–1.37] | ||||
Able to read whole sentence | 1.06 [0.72–1.57] | 1.13 [0.71–1.81] | 0.89 [0.59–1.36] | 0.97 [0.59–1.60] | 1.04 [0.601–1.77] | ||||
Total children ever born | 1.18 [1.09–1.26]*** | 1.29 [1.17–1.42]*** | 1.39 [1.23–1.57]*** | 1.51 [1.32–1.72]*** | 1.49 [1.30–1.69]*** | ||||
Type of delivery | |||||||||
Normal | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Caesarean | 1.32 [0.76–2.32] | 1.41 [0.80–2.50] | 1.15 [0.61–2.18] | 1.21 [0.63–2.31] | 1.09 [0.51–2.32] | ||||
Place of delivery | |||||||||
Facility | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Home | 0.64 [0.45–0.91]* | 0.63 [0.43–0.90]* | 0.70 [0.47–1.04] | 0.70 [0.46–1.07] | 0.70 [0.45–1.09] | ||||
Early breastfeeding | |||||||||
Within one hour | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
After one hour or more | 1.16 [0.87–1.53] | 1.13 [0.84–1.53] | 1.01 [0.74–1.38] | 0.99 [0.71–1.39] | 1.06 [0.74–1.5] | ||||
Currently using contraceptive | |||||||||
No | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Yes | 0.56 [0.39–0.83]** | 0.55 [0.38–0.82]** | 0.54 [0.35–0.84]** | 0.54 [0.34–0.85]** | 0.56 [0.35–0.90]* | ||||
Ever terminated pregnancy | |||||||||
Never | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Yes | 1.18 [0.82–1.70] | 1.13 [0.79–1.62] | 1.32 [0.90–1.93] | 1.27 [0.87–1.86] | 1.24 [0.81–1.90] | ||||
GEOSPATIAL FACTORS | |||||||||
The length of the growing season | |||||||||
< =8 months | 1 | 1 | |||||||
9-10 months | 1.08 [0.64–1.8] | 0.91 [0.49–1.72] | |||||||
11–12 months | 1.78 [0.85–3.71] | 1.38 [0.46–4.17] | |||||||
Environmental temperature via restricted cubic spline | |||||||||
Livestock_goats | 1.00 [1.00–1.01] | 1.00 [1.00–1.01] | |||||||
Malaria prevalence | 0.58 [0.1–3.25] | 0.25 [0.03–2.17] | |||||||
Log of the population density | 0.92 [0.79–1.09] | 0.76 [0.60–0.96]* | |||||||
Rainfall via restricted cubic splines | 1.00 [1.00–1.01] | 1.00 [0.99–1.00] | |||||||
Vegetation index | |||||||||
Less than 25th percentile | 1 | 1 | |||||||
25th–50th percentile | 1.61 [0.97–2.65] | 1.19 [0.67–2.12] | |||||||
50th–75th percentile | 1.20 [0.61–2.38] | 0.68 [0.28–1.63] | |||||||
> 75th percentile | 1.19 [0.53–2.64] | 0.52 [0.19–1.44] | |||||||
Proximity to a protected area | |||||||||
Less than 25th percentile | 1 | 1 | |||||||
25th–50th percentile | 1.37 [0.95–1.97] | 1.83 [1.15–2.92]* | |||||||
50th–75th percentile | 0.89 [0.62–1.27] | 1.24 [0.76–2.02] | |||||||
> 75th percentile | 0.89 [0.59–1.36] | 1.08 [0.59–1.97] | |||||||
Survey year | |||||||||
2003 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
2008 | 0.76 [0.55–1.06] | 0.73 [0.53–1.01] | 0.84 [0.6–1.18] | 0.9 [0.61–1.34] | 0.75 [0.52–1.07] | 0.83 [0.58–1.2] | 0.92 [0.59–1.42] | 0.66 [0.49–0.9]** | 0.87 [0.55–1.38] |
2014 | 0.71 [0.53–0.96]* | 0.65 [0.48–0.86]** | 0.70 [0.5–0.97]* | 0.76 [0.52–1.12] | 0.68 [0.49–0.94]* | 0.71 [0.5–1] | 0.80 [0.53–1.22] | 0.64 [0.49–0.84]** | 0.81 [0.54–1.23] |