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Table 3 Multivariable regression analysis of factors associated with neonatal mortality: Evidence from the pooled Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys (2003–2014)

From: Geospatial analysis of determinants of neonatal mortality in Ghana

Variables

MODEL 1

MODEL 2

MODEL 3

MODEL 4

MODEL 5

MODEL 6

MODEL 7

MODEL 8

MODEL 9

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

aRR [95% CI]

HOUSEHOLD FACTORS

Age of the household head

1.01 [1.01–1.02]**

  

0.99 [0.97–1.00]

1.02 [1.01–1.02]**

 

1.00 [0.99–1.02]

 

1.00 [0.99–1.02]

Sex of household head

  Male

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

  Female

0.98 [0.74–1.29]

  

0.62 [0.40–0.97]*

0.90 [0.67–1.22]

 

0.64 [0.40–1.03]

 

0.76 [0.49–1.18]

Place of residence

  Urban

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

  Rural

1.44 [1.00–2.08]

  

1.24 [0.77–2.00]

1.35 [0.92–1.99]

 

1.25 [0.74–2.09]

 

1.39 [0.81–2.39]

Zone

  Coastal

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

  Southern

1.19 [0.89–1.6]

  

0.93 [0.67–1.29]

1.09 [0.81–1.48]

 

0.87 [0.61–1.23]

 

0.76 [0.44–1.32]

  Northern

1.25 [0.85–1.84]

  

1.15 [0.73–1.83]

1.28 [0.85–1.94]

 

1.20 [0.71–2.02]

 

1.35 [0.49–3.72]

Household size

0.90[0.85–0.97]**

  

0.85 [0.76–0.94]**

0.83 [0.76–0.92]***

 

0.80 [0.71–0.9]***

 

0.82 [0.73–0.92]**

Wealth index

  Poorest

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

  Poorer

0.83 [0.57–1.21]

  

0.77 [0.51–1.15]

0.86 [0.59–1.27]

 

0.80 [0.52–1.22]

 

0.92 [0.60–1.40]

  Middle

1.17 [0.74–1.84]

  

0.97 [0.56–1.67]

1.09 [0.67–1.78]

 

0.97 [0.54–1.75]

 

1.1 [0.60–2.01]

  Richer

0.99 [0.56–1.75]

  

0.71 [0.36–1.42]

0.93 [0.51–1.71]

 

0.72 [0.34–1.51]

 

0.81 [0.37–1.80]

  Richest

1.15 [0.63–2.12]

  

0.96 [0.43–2.13]

0.84 [0.43–1.65]

 

0.77 [0.33–1.82]

 

0.98 [0.38–2.54]

Household access to an improved water source

  Improved

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

  Unimproved

1.07 [0.77–1.47]

  

0.98 [0.67–1.44]

0.95 [0.67–1.36]

 

0.87 [0.57–1.34]

 

0.88 [0.57–1.34]

Household access to an improved sanitation facility

 Improved

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

 Unimproved

0.78 [0.56–1.08]

  

0.85 [0.58–1.24]

0.73 [0.52–1.05]

 

0.73 [0.47–1.13]

 

0.65 [0.41–1.02]

Have bed net

 No net

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

1

 Have net

0.98 [0.72–1.33]

  

0.89 [0.62–1.27]

1.05 [0.75–1.47]

 

0.88 [0.60–1.29]

 

0.95 [0.63–1.43]

CHILD FACTORS

The sex of the child

  Male

 

1

  

1

1

1

 

1

  Female

 

0.82 [0.64–1.04]

  

0.83 [0.65–1.06]

0.75 [0.56–1]*

0.74 [0.55–1]*

 

0.72 [0.53–1.00]

Multiple births

  Single birth

 

1

  

1

1

1

 

1

  Multiple births

 

4.10 [2.59–6.49]***

  

4.99 [3.01–8.28]***

3.29 [1.73–6.26]***

3.88 [1.96–7.68]***

 

3.42 [1.63–7.17]**

Birth order

 1st child

 

1

  

1

1

1

 

1

 2nd child

 

0.39 [0.08–2.00]

  

0.36 [0.07–1.88]

0.43 [0.08–2.38]

0.4 [0.07–2.31]

 

0.5 [0.09–2.91]

 3rd child

 

0.47 [0.09–2.48]

  

0.46 [0.08–2.54]

0.39 [0.07–2.26]

0.38 [0.06–2.38]

 

0.46 [0.07–2.94]

 4th + child

 

0.55 [0.1–2.94]

  

0.62 [0.11–3.41]

0.14 [0.02–0.84]*

0.14 [0.02–0.91]*

 

0.17 [0.03–1.09]

Birth spacing

 First child

 

1

  

1

1

1

 

1

  < 24 months

 

3.25 [0.62–16.97]

  

3.95 [0.74–21.15]

2.16 [0.35–13.25]

2.3 [0.36–14.59]

 

2.02 [0.32–12.75]

 24–35 months

 

1.66 [0.32–8.70]

  

2.00 [0.37–10.85]

1.14 [0.19–6.89]

1.23 [0.19–7.75]

 

0.84 [0.14–5.02]

 36+ months

 

1.28 [0.25–6.49]

  

1.37 [0.26–7.21]

0.66 [0.12–3.74]

0.62 [0.10–3.68]

 

0.48 [0.08–2.87]

Perceived birth weight

 Very large

 

1

  

1

1

1

 

1

 Large

 

0.75 [0.51–1.11]

  

0.78 [0.53–1.16]

0.8 [0.48–1.34]

0.8 [0.47–1.34]

 

0.88 [0.5–1.53]

 Average

 

0.79 [0.53–1.18]

  

0.77 [0.51–1.16]

1.02 [0.6–1.73]

0.94 [0.54–1.63]

 

1.05 [0.58–1.90]

 Small

 

1.53 [1.03–2.26]*

  

1.48 [0.99–2.2]

1.85 [1.09–3.16]*

1.74 [1.02–3.00]*

 

2.08 [1.19–3.63]*

MATERNAL FACTORS

Mothers age at first-child

   < 18

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

  18–29

  

1.03 [0.74–1.43]

1.11 [0.79–1.57]

 

0.93 [0.65–1.34]

0.98 [0.67–1.44]

 

1.15 [0.75–1.76]

  30+

  

1.31 [0.55–3.11]

1.57 [0.65–3.82]

 

1.05 [0.42–2.62]

1.14 [0.44–2.92]

 

1.03 [0.36–2.91]

The current marital status of the mother

 Never married

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Married

  

0.95 [0.59–1.54]

0.72 [0.42–1.26]

 

1.06 [0.64–1.77]

0.87 [0.48–1.55]

 

1.23 [0.67–2.25]

 Not married but living together

  

0.87 [0.50–1.52]

0.68 [0.36–1.28]

 

0.89 [0.50–1.61]

0.71 [0.36–1.40]

 

0.89 [0.46–1.74]

Literacy

 Cannot read

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Able to read part of sentence

  

0.67 [0.36–1.22]

0.62 [0.32–1.18]

 

0.73 [0.39–1.39]

0.7 [0.36–1.37]

 

0.66 [0.31–1.37]

 Able to read whole sentence

  

1.06 [0.72–1.57]

1.13 [0.71–1.81]

 

0.89 [0.59–1.36]

0.97 [0.59–1.60]

 

1.04 [0.601–1.77]

Total children ever born

  

1.18 [1.09–1.26]***

1.29 [1.17–1.42]***

 

1.39 [1.23–1.57]***

1.51 [1.32–1.72]***

 

1.49 [1.30–1.69]***

Type of delivery

 Normal

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Caesarean

  

1.32 [0.76–2.32]

1.41 [0.80–2.50]

 

1.15 [0.61–2.18]

1.21 [0.63–2.31]

 

1.09 [0.51–2.32]

Place of delivery

 Facility

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Home

  

0.64 [0.45–0.91]*

0.63 [0.43–0.90]*

 

0.70 [0.47–1.04]

0.70 [0.46–1.07]

 

0.70 [0.45–1.09]

Early breastfeeding

 Within one hour

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 After one hour or more

  

1.16 [0.87–1.53]

1.13 [0.84–1.53]

 

1.01 [0.74–1.38]

0.99 [0.71–1.39]

 

1.06 [0.74–1.5]

Currently using contraceptive

 No

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Yes

  

0.56 [0.39–0.83]**

0.55 [0.38–0.82]**

 

0.54 [0.35–0.84]**

0.54 [0.34–0.85]**

 

0.56 [0.35–0.90]*

Ever terminated pregnancy

 Never

  

1

1

 

1

1

 

1

 Yes

  

1.18 [0.82–1.70]

1.13 [0.79–1.62]

 

1.32 [0.90–1.93]

1.27 [0.87–1.86]

 

1.24 [0.81–1.90]

GEOSPATIAL FACTORS

 The length of the growing season

   < =8 months

       

1

1

  9-10 months

       

1.08 [0.64–1.8]

0.91 [0.49–1.72]

  11–12 months

       

1.78 [0.85–3.71]

1.38 [0.46–4.17]

 Environmental temperature via restricted cubic spline

Livestock_goats

       

1.00 [1.00–1.01]

1.00 [1.00–1.01]

 Malaria prevalence

       

0.58 [0.1–3.25]

0.25 [0.03–2.17]

Log of the population density

       

0.92 [0.79–1.09]

0.76 [0.60–0.96]*

Rainfall via restricted cubic splines

       

1.00 [1.00–1.01]

1.00 [0.99–1.00]

Vegetation index

 Less than 25th percentile

       

1

1

 25th–50th percentile

       

1.61 [0.97–2.65]

1.19 [0.67–2.12]

 50th–75th percentile

       

1.20 [0.61–2.38]

0.68 [0.28–1.63]

  > 75th percentile

       

1.19 [0.53–2.64]

0.52 [0.19–1.44]

Proximity to a protected area

 Less than 25th percentile

       

1

1

 25th–50th percentile

       

1.37 [0.95–1.97]

1.83 [1.15–2.92]*

 50th–75th percentile

       

0.89 [0.62–1.27]

1.24 [0.76–2.02]

  > 75th percentile

       

0.89 [0.59–1.36]

1.08 [0.59–1.97]

Survey year

 2003

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

 2008

0.76 [0.55–1.06]

0.73 [0.53–1.01]

0.84 [0.6–1.18]

0.9 [0.61–1.34]

0.75 [0.52–1.07]

0.83 [0.58–1.2]

0.92 [0.59–1.42]

0.66 [0.49–0.9]**

0.87 [0.55–1.38]

 2014

0.71 [0.53–0.96]*

0.65 [0.48–0.86]**

0.70 [0.5–0.97]*

0.76 [0.52–1.12]

0.68 [0.49–0.94]*

0.71 [0.5–1]

0.80 [0.53–1.22]

0.64 [0.49–0.84]**

0.81 [0.54–1.23]

  1. Abbreviations: aRR Adjusted Relative Risk. P-value notation: ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05