Table 5 Quality of caregiver-child interaction based on Indicator of Parent-Child Interaction tool (N=29)

 Conveys acceptance and warmth

Displaying warmth through verbal (i.e., making positive comments to child) and nonverbal (i.e., gentle, affectionate touch) signals

Child stacks two blocks together and caregiver responds, “Great job! Bravo!”

 Uses descriptive language

Describing activities, objects, and/or child’s behaviors or feelings with multiple-word sentences

Caregiver asks child, “Where is your shoe?”; Caregiver says “Let’s go to the store”

 Follows child’s lead

Noticing what interests the child and imitating, joining, turn-taking, or commenting appropriately on it

Child picks up ball and throws it to caregiver, and caregiver throws it back

 Maintains/extends child’s focus

Introducing activities or materials, or using words/gestures in a novel way to engage child that demonstrates consideration to child’s interests

Child is looking at book and caregiver begins pointing out the animals on each page

 Uses restrictions/ intrusions

Making short, restrictive statements, or taking things away or controlling child’s movement unnecessarily

Child reaches for cell phone and caregiver says “No!” sharply

 Uses interruptions with an explanation

Interrupting a child’s behavior while offering a verbal explanation or learning objective

Child throws a toy and caregiver says calmly, “Don’t throw that, you could hurt someone”