Table 2 Characteristics of study participants according to survival status, 2016/2017 MICS, Nigeria
Variable | Sample size Mean (SD)/ n (%) | Alive Mean (SD)/ n (%) | Neonatal mortality Mean (SD)/ n (%) | Post-neonatal mortality Mean (SD)/ n (%) | Child mortality Mean (SD)/ n (%) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child-level factors | ||||||
 Child’s sex (N = 30,959) |  |  |  |  |  | 0.0009 |
  Male | 15,725 (50.8) | 14,165 (50.4) | 679 (57.9) | 483 (54.4) | 398 (49.0) |  |
  Female | 15,234 (49.2) | 13,919 (49.6) | 494 (42.1) | 406 (45.6) | 415 (51.0) |  |
 Gestation type (N = 30,957) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Singleton | 29,729 (96.0) | 27,135 (96.6) | 1003 (85.5) | 820 (92.3) | 771 (94.9) |  |
  Multiple | 1228 (4.0) | 974 (3.4) | 171 (14.5) | 69 (7.7) | 41 (5.1) |  |
 Birth order (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  First | 5436 (17.6) | 4892 (17.4) | 257 (21.9) | 164 (18.5) | 122 (15.0) |  |
  2–3 | 10,358 (33.5) | 9617 (34.2) | 287 (24.5) | 240 (27.0) | 213 (26.2) |  |
  4–6 | 9971 (32.2) | 9108 (32.4) | 309 (26.3) | 278 (31.3) | 276 (34.0) |  |
   ≥ 7 | 5195 (16.8) | 4466 (15.9) | 321 (27.3) | 207 (23.2) | 202 (24.8) |  |
 Previous birth interval (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  < 2 years | 6601 (21.3) | 5630 (20.0) | 413 (35.2) | 292 (32.8) | 266 (32.7) |  |
  First birth | 5501 (17.8) | 4942 (17.6) | 270 (23.0) | 166 (18.7) | 123 (15.2) |  |
  ≥ 2 years | 18,858 (60.9) | 17,512 (62.4) | 491 (41.8) | 431 (48.5) | 423 (52.1) |  |
 Maternal age at birth (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  < 20 years | 4320 (14.0) | 3781 (13.5) | 241 (20.5) | 153 (17.3) | 144 (17.8) |  |
  20–34 years | 21,338 (68.9) | 19,547 (69.6) | 709 (60.4) | 579 (65.1) | 504 (62.0) |  |
  ≥ 35 years | 5302(17.1) | 4757 (16.9) | 224 (19.1) | 157 (17.6) | 165 (20.3) |  |
Maternal-level factors | ||||||
 Maternal education (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  None/primary | 20,609 (66.6) | 18,333 (65.3) | 842 (71.7) | 718 (80.8) | 716 (88.0) |  |
  Secondary | 7981 (25.8) | 7498 (26.7) | 253 (21.5) | 140 (15.7) | 90 (11.1) |  |
  Post-secondary | 2369 (7.7) | 2253 (8.0) | 79 (6.7) | 31 (3.47) | 7 (0.9) |  |
 Maternal wealth index (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Poor | 13,912 (44.9) | 12,287 (43.7) | 552 (47.1) | 522 (58.7) | 552 (67.9) |  |
  Middle | 6068 (19.6) | 5471 (19.5) | 260 (22.1) | 176 (19.8) | 161 (19.8) |  |
  Rich | 10,980 (35.5) | 10,326 (36.8) | 362 (30.8) | 191 (21.5) | 101 (12.4) |  |
 Maternal media exposure (N = 30,956) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  High | 10,047 (32.5) | 9296 (33.1) | 367 (31.3) | 227 (25.5) | 158 (19.4) |  |
  Medium | 4972 (16.1) | 4588 (16.3) | 158 (13.5) | 118 (13.2) | 107 (13.2) |  |
  Low | 3542 (11.4) | 3221 (11.5) | 131 (11.2) | 100 (11.2) | 91 (11.1) |  |
  None | 12,394 (40.0) | 10,976 (39.1) | 517 (44.1) | 444 (50.0) | 457 (56.3) |  |
 Death of previous children (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  < 3 | 28,584 (92.3) | 26,557 (94.6) | 834 (71.1) | 640 (72.0) | 553 (68.0) |  |
  3–4 | 1882 (6.1) | 1252 (4.5) | 254 (21.7) | 174 (19.6) | 201 (24.7) |  |
  ≥ 5 | 494 (1.6) | 275 (1.0) | 85 (7.3) | 75 (8.4) | 60 (7.3) |  |
 Parity (N = 30,960) | ||||||
  < 3 | 7847 (25.3) | 7293 (26.0) | 262 (22.4) | 168 (18.9) | 123 (15.2) | < 0.001 |
  3–4 | 10,136 (32.7) | 9338 (33.3) | 317 (27.0) | 262 (29.5) | 219 (27.0) |  |
  ≥ 5 | 12,977 (41.9) | 11,453 (40.8) | 594 (50.7) | 459 (51.6) | 470 (57.9) |  |
 Access to ANC (N = 20,775)b |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  None | 6726 (32.4) | 5972 (31.6) | 267 (33.2) | 266 (45.0) | 221 (44.9) |  |
  Skilled | 12,600 (60.7) | 11,667 (61.8) | 457 (56.8) | 257 (43.5) | 220 (44.6) |  |
  Unskilled | 1449 (7.0) | 1250 (6.6) | 80 (9.9) | 68 (11.5) | 51 (10.4) |  |
 Freq of ANC visits (N = 20,775)b |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  None | 6726 (32.4) | 5972 (31.6) | 267 (33.2) | 266 (45.0) | 221 (44.9) |  |
  1–7 | 10,416 (50.1) | 9541 (50.5) | 381 (47.4) | 265 (44.9) | 228 (46.4) |  |
  ≥ 8 | 3633 (17.5) | 3375 (17.9) | 155 (19.3) | 59 (10.1) | 43 (8.7) |  |
 Skilled birth attendants during delivery (N = 20,786)b |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  None | 2646(12.7) | 2318 (12.3) | 113 (14.0) | 97 (16.3) | 118 (24.0) |  |
  Skilled | 8072 (38.8) | 7540 (39.9) | 310 (38.4) | 135 (22.7) | 88 (17.8) |  |
  Unskilled | 10,068 (48.4) | 9035 (47.8) | 385 (47.7) | 362 (61.0) | 286 (58.2) |  |
 Institutional delivery (N = 20,783)b |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Home | 13,358 (64.3) | 11,971 (63.3) | 516 (64.2) | 457 (77.4) | 415 (84.3) |  |
  Health facilities | 7425 (35.7) | 6926 (36.7) | 288 (35.8) | 134 (22.6) | 77 (15.7) |  |
 Marital status (N = 30,934) |  |  |  |  |  | 0.5392 |
  Currently married/in union | 29,748 (96.2) | 26,998 (96.2) | 1120 (95.7) | 852 (96.3) | 778 (95.7) |  |
  Formerly married/in union | 803 (2.6) | 717 (2.6) | 32 (2.8) | 25 (2.9) | 29 (3.6) |  |
  Never married/in union | 382 (1.2) | 351 (1.3) | 18 (1.6) | 8 (0.9) | 6 (0.7) |  |
 Contraceptive use (N = 26,807) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Yes | 1947 (7.3) | 1832 (7.6) | 55 (5.4) | 46 (5.6) | 15 (1.9) |  |
  No | 24,860 (92.7) | 22,363 (92.4) | 973 (94.6) | 776 (94.4) | 749 (98.1) |  |
 Alcohol intake (N = 30,807) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Yes | 3649 (11.8) | 3401 (12.2) | 124 (10.6) | 81 (9.2) | 42 (5.21) |  |
  No | 27,158 (88.2) | 24,547 (87.8) | 1045 (89.4) | 801 (90.8) | 765 (94.8) |  |
 Smoking experience (N = 30,898) |  |  |  |  |  | 0.02 |
  Yes | 213 (0.7) | 180 (0.6) | 13 (1.2) | 14 (1.6) | 5 (0.6) |  |
  No | 30,685 (99.3) | 27,855 (99.4) | 1153 (98.8) | 869 (98.4) | 808 (99.4) |  |
Household-level factors | ||||||
 Sex of household head (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | 0.502 |
  Male | 29,614 (95.7) | 26,844 (95.6) | 1132 (96.4) | 851 (95.7) | 787 (96.8) |  |
  Female | 1346 (4.4) | 1240 (4.4) | 42 (3.6) | 38 (4.3) | 26 (3.2) |  |
 Household head education (N = 30,881) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  None/primary | 18,114 (58.7) | 16,116 (57.5) | 760 (65.1) | 614 (69.2) | 623 (77.1) |  |
  Secondary | 8320 (26.9) | 7702 (27.5) | 267 (22.9) | 207 (23.3) | 143 (17.7) |  |
  Post-secondary | 4448 (14.4) | 4199 (15.0) | 140 (12.0) | 66 (7.5) | 42 (5.2) |  |
 Ethnic group (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Hausa | 17,484 (56.5) | 15,505 (55.2) | 714 (60.8) | 611 (68.7) | 655 (80.6) |  |
  Igbo | 2409 (7.8) | 2278 (8.1) | 69 (5.9) | 41 (4.6) | 21 (2.2) |  |
  Yoruba | 2929 (9.5) | 2755 (9.8) | 104 (8.8) | 46 (5.2) | 21 (2.6) |  |
  Others | 8140 (26.3) | 7546 (26.9) | 287 (24.4) | 191 (21.5) | 116 (14.2) |  |
 Housing condition (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Inadequate | 13,172(42.5) | 11,694 (41.6) | 511 (43.5) | 480 (54.1) | 487 (59.9) |  |
  Adequate | 17,788 (57.5) | 16,391 (58.4) | 663 (56.5) | 408 (45.9) | 326 (40.1) |  |
 Polygamy (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Yes | 10,880 (35.1) | 9699 (34.5) | 432 (36.9) | 375 (42.2) | 373 (45.9) |  |
  No | 20,079 (64.9) | 18,385 (65.5) | 741 (63.1) | 514 (57.8) | 439 (54.1) |  |
 Household access to drinking water (N = 30,959) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Unimproved | 10,820 (35.0) | 9587 (34.1) | 480 (40.9) | 405 (45.6) | 348 (42.8) |  |
  Improved | 20,139 (65.1) | 18,497 (65.9) | 694 (59.1) | 484 (54.4) | 465 (57.2) |  |
 Household sanitation (N = 30,959) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Unimproved | 15,926 (51.4) | 14,266 (50.8) | 619 (52.7) | 548 (61.6) | 493 (60.7) |  |
  Improved | 15,033 (48.6) | 13,817 (49.2) | 555 (47.3) | 341 (38.4) | 320 (39.3) |  |
 Indoor pollution (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Polluting fuel | 29,120 (94.1) | 26,331 (93.8) | 1123 (95.7) | 860 (96.7) | 806 (99.1) |  |
  Clean fuel | 1840 (5.9) | 1753 (6.2) | 50 (4.3) | 29 (3.3) | 7 (0.9) |  |
 Household size (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Mean (standard deviation)a | 7.8 (4.1) | 7.8 (4.1) | 7.2 (4.1) | 7.2 (3.8) | 7.6 (3.9) |  |
Community-level factors | ||||||
 Place of residence (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Urban | 9327 (30.1) | 8710 (31.0) | 323 (27.5) | 162 (18.2) | 131 (16.2) |  |
  Rural | 21,633 (69.9) | 19,374 (69.0) | 850 (72.5) | 727 (81.8) | 681 (83.8) |  |
 Region (N = 30,960) | ||||||
  North-Central (NC) | 5084 (16.4) | 4636 (16.5) | 216 (18.4) | 136 (15.3) | 96 (11.8) | < 0.001 |
  North-East (NE) | 6517 (21.1) | 5950 (21.2) | 213 (18.1) | 173 (19.4) | 181 (22.2) |  |
  North-West (NW) | 12,113 (39.1) | 10,651 (37.9) | 534 (45.5) | 453 (50.9) | 475 (58.5) |  |
  South-East (SE) | 1604 (5.2) | 1513 (5.4) | 42 (3.6) | 33 (3.7) | 15 (1.9) |  |
  South-South (SS) | 2370 (7.7) | 2252 (8.0) | 52 (4.4) | 45 (5.0) | 21 (2.6) |  |
  South-West (SW) | 3272 (10.6) | 3081 (11.0) | 117 (9.9) | 49 (5.6) | 25 (3.0) |  |
 Infrastructural development (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Low | 16,235 (52.4) | 14,452 (51.5) | 657 (56.0) | 555 (62.5) | 571 (70.2) |  |
  High | 14,724 (47.6) | 13,632 (48.5) | 516 (44.0) | 334 (37.5) | 242 (29.8) |  |
 Comm. Maternal education (N = 30,960) |  |  |  |  |  | < 0.001 |
  Low | 16,451 (53.1) | 14,434 (51.4) | 727 (62.0) | 627 (70.5) | 663 (81.6) |  |
  Medium | 5842 (18.9) | 5466 (19.5) | 183 (15.6) | 116 (13.1) | 76 (9.4) |  |
  High | 8666 (28.0) | 8184 (29.1) | 263 (22.4) | 146 (16.4) | 74 (9.0) |  |