Table 1 Results of univariate regression analyses for the association between the explanatory and control variables, and the scale scores of NAPLAN Year 3 tests in five domains, Northern Territory Aboriginal children, NAPLAN tests from 2009 to 2016

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Unilateral

0.2

(−11.7 ~ 12.1)

−4.6

(− 14.0 ~ 4.7)

10.5

(−3.1 ~ 24.2)

−0.6

(−6.7 ~ 5.4)

−5.7

(−15.5 ~ 4.1)

 Mild

−4.7

(− 15.5 ~ 6.2)

−15.8

(−23.7 ~ − 8.0)***

3.8

(− 9.0 ~ 16.7)

− 5.4

(− 10.5 ~ − 0.2)*

−7.3

(− 15.7 ~ 1.0)

 Moderate or worse

2.1

(− 13.4 ~ 17.5)

−12.7

(− 24.7 ~ − 0.8)*

8.7

(− 9.7 ~ 27.2)

− 7.4

(− 15.4 ~ 0.7)

− 16.0

(− 29.0 ~ − 3.0)*

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−2.8

(− 12.6 ~ 6.9)

−4.3

(−11.5 ~ 2.8)

−6.5

(− 17.5 ~ 4.6)

− 5.7

(− 10.4–1.1)*

− 2.5

(− 10.0 ~ 5.0)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−1.9

(−11.2 ~ 7.4)

2.6

(−4.5 ~ 9.6)

−2.3

(−13.3 ~ 8.6)

−2.3

(−6.6 ~ 2.1)

− 2.1

(− 9.2 ~ 5.0)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−0.02

(−14.8 ~ 14.7)

4.3

(−7.0 ~ 15.6)

1.4

(−16.6 ~ 19.3)

0.4

(− 7.2 ~ 8.0)

6.3

(−4.7 ~ 17.2)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

0.5

(−9.4 ~ 10.4)

−5.4

(−13.0 ~ 2.1)

2.6

(−9.1 ~ 14.4)

−3.3

(−8.2 ~ 1.5)

1.4

(−6.4 ~ 9.1)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−19.9

(−28.5 ~ − 11.3)***

− 27.8

(−34.0 ~ − 21.7)***

−14.9

(− 24.8 ~ − 4.9)**

−8.6

(−12.6 ~ − 4.7)***

−13.5

(−20.1 ~ − 6.9)***

 ≥ 2500

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 < 2500

2.3

(−11.0 ~ 15.6)

−7.6

(− 16.8 ~ 1.5)

6.4

(−9.2 ~ 22.0)

−3

(−8.6 ~ 2.7)

− 11.7

(−22.3 ~ − 1.1)*

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

1.1

(−10.8 ~ 12.9)

−11.3

(− 19.7 ~ −2.9)

1.2

(− 13.4 ~ 15.8)

−1.5

(−7.2 ~ 4.2)

−5.9

(− 16.3 ~ 4.5)

 1

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 2–3

8.0

(−1.7 ~ 17.8)

−2.6

(− 10.0 ~ −4.8)

4.2

(−7.5 ~ 15.8)

3.5

(− 1.5 ~ 8.4)

−0.1

(− 7.8 ~ 7.5)

 4+

5.1

(−8.2 ~ 18.5)

−7.6

(−17.8 ~ 2.5)

−5.1

(−20.2 ~ 9.9)

− 1.5

(− 7.6 ~ 4.5)

−11.3

(− 22.7 ~ 0.1)

 ≥ 7

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 < 7

−9.7

(−32.9 ~ 13.4)

−19

(−35.2 ~ −2.7)*

−41.6

(−68.3 ~ − 14.9)**

− 3.6

(−13.6 ~ 6.3)

1.6

(−16.1 ~ 19.2)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

2.7

(−9.5 ~ 15.0)

−1.1

(−10.1 ~ 8.0)

10.4

(−3.5 ~ 24.3)

1.5

(−4.7 ~ 7.7)

−0.1

(−9.1 ~ 9.0)

 ≤ 5

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 > 5

−2.9

(−38.7 ~ 33.0)

−31.2

(−58.0 ~ −4.3)

− 11.8

(− 51.4 ~ 27.8)

−7.7

(− 23.1 ~ 7.7)

−38.2

(−67.0 ~ − 9.3)*

 ≤ 2

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 > 2

−5.6

(−45.3 ~ 34.2)

−23.3

(− 55.1 ~ 8.4)

3

(−46.0 ~ 52.1)

1.5

(−17.4 ~ 20.3)

−21.1

(−68.2 ~ 25.9)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−19.0

(− 46.9 ~ 8.9)

−12.5

(−32.4 ~ 7.4)

7.9

(−22.9 ~ 38.8)

−13.8

(−26.4 ~ − 1.1)*

−15.3

(− 35.1 ~ 4.6)

 No

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Yes

−3.1

(−23.6 ~ 17.4)

−20.5

(− 36.6 ~ −4.4)*

−34.7

(−57.7 ~ − 11.7)**

−14.9

(−25.2 ~ − 4.7)**

−19.2

(−32.6 ~ − 5.7)*

 8 yr

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 < 8

−5.3

(−19.6 ~ 9.0)

−10.8

(− 19.8 ~ − 1.7)*

−13.1

(−28.5 ~ 2.2)

−7.3

(− 12.2 ~ − 2.3)**

−20.3

(− 31.2 ~ − 9.3)***

 ≥ 9

− 10.7

(− 26.7 ~ 5.3)

11.8

(−1.2 ~ 24.7)

22.7

(2.4 ~ 43.0)*

3.9

(− 5.2 ~ 13.0)

0.9

(−11.7 ~ 13.5)

 ≥ 80%

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 60–79%

−14.8

(−25.3 ~ −4.3)*

− 28.7

(−36.9 ~ − 20.5)***

−21.7

(− 34.1 ~ −9.3)**

−11.7

(− 17.1 ~ −6.2)***

−16.4

(− 24.1 ~ −8.7)***

 < 60%

−26.8

(− 38.9 ~ − 14.7)***

− 52.7

(− 61.4 ~ − 43.9)***

− 35.9

(− 49.5 ~ − 22.2)***

− 23.1

(− 28.7 ~ − 17.5)***

−29.6

(− 38.5 ~ − 20.7)***