Name, Year, Reference | N (mean age, years) | Study Design | Measure of Sedentary Behavior | Measure of Depression and/or Anxiety Symptoms | Results | Methodolo-gical Quality Score |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allen, 2015 [23] | 7818 (ages 6–10 at baseline) | C/L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Parent-reported average mins/day of TV viewing and videogame playing on weekdays and weekend days | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex, null (cross-sec. and long.) Screen-based SB *sex interaction, NS, not reported Parental education, null (cross-sec. and long.) Screen-based SB*parental education interaction, NS, not reported General health rating, null (cross-sec. and long.) Screen-based SB* general health rating interaction, NS, not reported Pubertal status, null (cross-sec. and long.) Screen-based SB* pubertal status interaction, NS, not reported Household income, null (cross-sectional and longitudinal) Screen-based SB* household income interaction, NS, not reported Neighborhood socioeconomic status, null (cross-sectional and longitudinal) Screen-based SB* neighborhood socioeconomic status interaction, NS, not reported | Moderate |
Baer, 2012 [24] | 109 (13.8) | C | Self-reported hours/day of TV viewing, recreational computer use, and videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | TV viewing, null (Standardized regression coefficients presented) TV viewing:0.08 ± 0.09 (p > .05) Computer use:0.05 ± 0.11 (p > .05) Videogames: −0.13 ± 0.10 (p > .05) | Weak |
Barcaccia, 2018 [25] | 301 (17.1) | C | Self-reported average daily time spent watching TV | Depression: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) Anxiety: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) Form Y | Female sex, null (dep.) In boys: β = 0.127 (p > .05) In girls: β = 0.384 (p > .05) Female sex, null (anx.) In boys: β = 0.072 (p > .05) In girls: β = −0.046 (p > .05) | Weak |
Bélair, 2018 [26] | 9702 (ages 14–15) | C | Self-reported average daily time spent TV viewing, videogame playing, or watching videos | Depression and Anxiety: Ontario Child Health Study (7 items) | Female sex, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB in entire sample: OR 1.36 (95%CI 1.11–1.67) Stratified analyses by sex NS different than estimate in entire sample, not reported Physical activity, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*physical activity interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Bélanger, 2011 [27] | 7211 (ages 16–20) | C | Self-reported hours/day and days/week of internet use | Depression: Depressive Tendencies Scale | Female sex, null Heavy vs. regular Internet users in boys: RRR = 1.36 (95%CI 1.01–1.81) Heavy vs. regular Internet users in girls: RRR = 1.86 (95%CI 1.30–2.66) | Weak |
Bickham, 2015 [28] | 126 (14.0) | C/L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported average amount of TV viewing, computer use, videogame playing, and mobile phone use on weekends and weekdays | Depression: BDI | TV viewing, null (cross-sectional) TV: β = −0.07 (p = .45) Computer: β = 0.03 (p = .76) Videogames: β = − 0.08 (p = 0.39) Mobile phone: β = − 0.04 (p = .66) TV viewing and mobile phone use, amplifier (longitudinal) TV: β = 0.21 (p = .03) Computer: β = 0.08 (p = .45) Videogames: β = 0.004 (p = .97) Mobile phone: β = 0.22 (p = .02) | Moderate |
Brodersen, 2005 [29] | 4320 (11.8) | C | Self-reported average TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing on weekends and weekdays | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex, amplifier In boys: β = 0.08 (p = .48) In girls: β = 0.34 (p = .001) | Weak |
Cao, 2011 [30] | 5003 (13.2) | C | Self-reported average hours of TV viewing and computer use outside of school hours | Depression: Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children (DSRSC) Anxiety: Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) | Vigorous physical activity (VPA), buffer (dep.) High screen-based SB and low VPA: REF. Low screen-based SB and low VPA: OR 0.66 (95%CI 0.56–0.79) High screen-based SB and high VPA: OR 0.78 (95%CI 0.60–1.01) Low screen-based SB and low VPA: OR 0.50 (0.41–0.62) VPA, buffer (anx.) High screen-based SB and low VPA: REF. Low screen-based SB and low VPA: OR 0.72 (95%CI 0.60–0.85) High screen-based SB and high VPA: OR 0.87 (95%CI 0.67–1.12) Low screen-based SB and low VPA: OR 0.67 (0.41–0.62) | Strong |
Casiano, 2012 [31] | 9137 (ages 12–19) | C | Self-reported average hours per week of TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression: Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) | Videogame use, buffer TV: OR 0.94 (95%CI 0.87–1.02) Computer: OR 1.03 (95%CI 0.96–1.10) Videogames: OR 0.87 (95%CI 0.79–0.97) | Weak |
Castillo, 2014 [32] | 1508 (13.9) | C | Self-reported time spent in screen-based SB on the most recent non-school day (TV viewing, computer use, videogames, listening to music, and telephone/texting) | Depression: Kandel’s 6-item depressive symptoms scale | Female sex, null Depression*sex interaction (p = .07) | Weak |
Chen, 2009 [33] | 10,347 (grade 11) | L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported average time watching TV and playing Internet games after school | Depression: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and BDI | Internet games, buffer TV: β = 0.00, p > 0.05 Internet games: β = −0.31, p < .01 | Strong |
Cho, 2017 [34] | 10,261 (ages 11–17 at baseline) | L (depressive symptoms predicting screen-based SB) | Self-reported weekly hours of TV viewing, video viewing, computer games, and videogames. | Depression: Modified CES-D | Socioeconomic Neighborhood Environment, null Depressive symptom*poverty interaction NS, not reported Depressive symptom*education interaction NS, not reported Depressive symptom*Race/ethnicity composition interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Dennison-Farris, 2017 [35] | 121 (10.5) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing, computer use, videogame playing, and tablet use on weekdays and weekend days | Depression: Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) | Tablet, amplifier (on weekdays only) On weekdays TV: β = 0.01 (p = .65) Computer: β = 0.03 (p = .06) Videogames: β = 0.01 (p = .66) Tablet: β = 0.03 (p = .03) Tablet, null (on weekend days only) On weekend days TV: β = 0.04 (p = .01) Computer: β = 0.04 (p = .02) Videogames: β = 0.03 (p = .03) Tablet: β = 0.03 (p = .04) | Weak |
Desai, 2010 [36] | 4028 (ages 14–18) | C | Self-reported average time playing video or computer games in the previous week | Depression: self-reports of being sad or hopeless for 2 weeks or more during the previous year | Female sex, buffer Depressive symptom*sex interaction (p = .01) In boys: OR 1.15 (p = .35) In girls: OR 0.72 (p = .002) | Weak |
Do, 2013 [37] | 136,589 (ages 13–18) | C | Self-reported average daily minutes of Internet use (non-study purposes) over the last 30 days | Depression: self-reports of sadness/despair or suicidal ideation | Longer sleep duration, null Internet*sleep duration interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Durkin, 2002 [38] | 1304 (16.0) | C | Self-reported of average computer game use | Depression: 4-item scale (measure not reported) | Female sex, null Screen-based SB*sex interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Fulkerson, 2004 [39] | 4734 (14.8) | C | Self-reported average TV viewing on weekends and weekdays | Depression: Kandel and Davies 6-item depressive mood scale | Female sex, amplifier (on weekdays and weekend days) On weekdays Mean hours of screen-based SB in boys: Low dep = 4.7 h vs. moderate dep. = 4.8 h vs high dep. = 4.8 h (p = .665) Mean hours of screen-based SB in girls: Low dep. = 4.3 h vs. moderate dep. = 4.7 h vs. high dep. = 4.5 h (p < .001) On weekend days Mean hours of screen-based SB in boys: Low dep = 4.7 h vs. moderate dep. = 4.7 h vs. high dep. = 4.7 h (p = .705) Mean hours of screen-based SB in girls: Low dep. = 4.3 h vs. moderate dep. = 4.6 h vs. high dep. = 4.3 h (p < .001) | Weak |
Godinho, 2014 [40] | 1680 (aged 13) | C | Self-reported average TV viewing and computer use on weekends and weekdays | Depression: BDI-II | Female sex and computer use, amplifier TV (in boys): OR 1.17 (95%CI 0.64–2.14) TV (in girls): NS, not reported Computer (in boys): OR 1.02 (95%CI 0.55–1.89) Computer (in girls): OR 1.71 (95%CI 1.11–2.61) | Moderate |
Goldfield, 2016 [41] | 358 (15.6) | C | Self-reported average daily hours TV viewing, computer use, and playing inactive videogames | Depression: CDI | Female sex, null Total screen-based SB*sex interaction (p = .751) TV*sex interaction (p = .276) Computer*sex interaction (p = .623) Videogame*sex interaction (p = .335) TV Viewing, buffer TV: β = 0.11 (p > .05) Computer: β = 0.18 (p = .006) Videogames: β = 0.13 (p = .05) | Weak |
Gopinath, 2012 [42] | 1094 (17.3) (C) 775 (17.3) (L) | C/L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Self-reported average daily hours TV viewing, computer use, videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), emotional subscale | TV viewing, null (dep. and anx.) (cross-sectional) TV Viewing: β = −2.4, p = .01 Computer: β = − 2.3, p = .004 Videogames: β = −3.2, p = .01 TV viewing, buffer (dep. and anx.) (longitudinal) Low TV viewing mean score = 76.17 Moderate TV Viewing mean score = 73.78 High TV viewing mean score = 71.31 (p-trend = .10) Low total screen time mean score = 75.31 Moderate total screen time mean score = 76.92 High total screen time mean score = 66.98 (p-trend = .01) | Moderate |
Griffiths, 2010 [43] | 13,470 (5.2) | C | Mother-report of child’s average hours of TV/videos/DVD, computer use, and electronic game use | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex, amplifier (dep. and anx.) In boys: β = − 0.03, p = .77 In girls: β = 0.09, p = .03 | Moderate |
Grontved, 2015 [44] | 435 (aged 15 at baseline) | L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported leisure time TV viewing and computer use | Depression: Major Depression Inventory (MDI) | Female sex, null TV*sex interaction (p = .89) Computer*sex interaction (p = .18) TV Viewing, amplifier TV: β = 1.24 (p < .001) Computer: β = −.06 (p = .91) | Weak |
Hamer, 2016 [45] | 2038 (16.0) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Self-reported time spent TV viewing, watching videos, and computer use “after school yesterday” | Depression and Anxiety: 9-item Malaise Inventory | Female sex, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*sex interaction NS, not reported | Moderate |
Hayward, 2016 [46] | 3295 (15.1) | C | Self-reported screen-based SB from single item on Core Indicators and Measures of Youth Health Survey | Depression: Short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) | Female sex, buffer In boys: OR 0.98 (95%CI 0.93–1.03) In girls: OR 0.95 (95%CI 0.91–0.98) | Moderate |
Hinkley, 2014 [47] | 3604 (4.3) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Parent-reported average daily hours of TV viewing and e-game/computer use on weekdays and weekend days | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex and TV viewing, null (dep. and anx.) (on weekdays and weekend days) On weekdays TV viewing in boys: OR 1.2 (95% CI 0.9–1.5) TV viewing in girls: OR 1.3 (95%CI 1.0–1.7) Computer use in boys: OR 1.3 (95%CI 0.8–2.1) Computer use in girls: OR 2.0 (95%CI 1.0–4.0) On weekend days TV viewing in boys: OR 1.0 (95% CI 0.8–1.3) TV viewing in girls: OR 1.3 (95% CI 1.0–1.6) Computer use in boys: OR 1.0 (95%CI 0.7–1.4) Computer use in girls: OR 1.1 (95%CI 0.7–1.8) | Moderate |
Hoare, 2014 [48] | 800 (13.1) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression: SMFQ | Female sex, null In boys: OR 1.22 (p = .01) In girls: OR 1.12 (p = .02) | Weak |
Holtz, 2011 [49] | 205 (12.7) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of Internet use (for communication, informational purposes, and online gaming) | Depression and Anxiety: German version of the Youth Self Report (YSR), internalizing subscale | Parental communication, null (dep. and anx.) Parent communication*Internet use interaction NS (Wald χ2 < 0.6) | Weak |
Houghton, 2018 [50] | 1749 (ages 10–17) | L (bi-directional) | Self-reported screen-based SB (TV viewing, web, gaming, and social media) via Screen Based Media Use Scale | Depression: CDI 2 | Female sex, buffer Social media, amplifier TV viewing in boys: β = 0.108 (p = .058) (depressive symptoms predicting TV viewing) β = 0.057 (p = .290) (TV viewing predicting depressive symptoms) Web use in boys: β = 0.058 (p = .246) (depressive symptoms predicting web use) β = 0.115 (p = .028) (web use predicting depressive symptoms) Gaming in boys: β = 0.045 (p = .338) (depressive symptoms predicting gaming) β = 0.040 (p = .451) (gaming predicting depressive symptoms) Social media in boys: β = 0.163 (p = .002) (depressive symptoms predicting social media) β = 0.150 (p = .002) (social media predicting depressive symptoms) TV viewing in girls: β = 0.033 (p = .563) (depressive symptoms predicting TV viewing) β = 0.072 (p = .212) (TV viewing predicting depressive symptoms) Web use in girls: β = − 0.022 (p = .707) (depressive symptoms predicting web use) β = 0.070 (p = .211) (web use predicting depressive symptoms) Gaming in girls: β = 0.038 (p = .404) (depressive symptoms predicting gaming) β = 0.050 (p = .302) (gaming predicting depressive symptoms) Social media in girls: β = − 0.061 (p = .238) (depressive symptoms social media) β = − 0.083 (p = .104) (social media predicting depressive symptoms) Mid-adolescence, amplifier In boys (early): β = 0.032 (p = .757) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.361 (p = .241) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In girls (early): β = − 0.054 (p = .555) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.002 (p = .986) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In boys (mid): β = 0.068 (p = .501) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.272 (p < .001) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In girls (mid): β = 0.217 (p = .107) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.253 (p = .024) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In boys (late): β = − 0.009 (p = .955) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.107 (p = .518) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In girls (late): β = 0.026 (p = .857) (depressive symptoms predicting total screen-based SB) β = 0.187 (p = .302) (total screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Moderate |
Hrafnkelsdottir, 2018 [51] | 244 (15.8) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing on weekends and weekdays | Depression and Anxiety: Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) depression and anxiety subscales | VPA, buffer (dep.) Low VPA and high screen-based SB: REF. High VPA and low screen-based SB: RR = 0.06 (95%CI 0.01–0.41) VPA, buffer (anx.) Low VPA and high screen-based SB: REF. High VPA and low screen-based SB: RR = 0.16 (95%CI 0.06–0.45) | Weak |
Hume, 2011 [52] | 155 (14.4) | C/L (bi-directional) | Self-reported average TV viewing | Depression: CES-D | Female sex, null (cross-sectional) In boys: NS, not reported In girls: NS, not reported Female sex, null (long., screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) In boys: NS, not reported In girls: NS, not reported Female sex, amplifier (long., depressive symptoms predicting screen-based SB) In boys: β = −4.29 (p > .05) In girls: β = 3.53 (p < .001) | Moderate |
Iannotti, 2013 [53] | 9058 (13.9) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing on weekends and weekdays | Depression: Scale not reported, 6 screening questions (sadness, irritability, hopelessness, change in appetite, change in sleeping, and problems concentrating) | Female sex, null Healthful boys (low screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.11 Unhealthful boys (high screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.35 Typical boys (moderate screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.17 (each group sig. Different from one another at p < .05 level) Healthful girls (low screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.40 Unhealthful girls (high screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.76 Typical girls (moderate screen-based SB): mean depression score = 2.64 (each group sig. Different from one another at p < .05 level) | Strong |
Katon, 2010 [54] | 2274 (13–17) | C | Self-reported average time TV viewing and computer use | Depression: Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2) | Computer use, amplifier Mean hours of TV viewing: Low dep. = 1.7 vs. high dep. = 1.7 (p > .05) Mean hours of computer use: Low dep. = 1.6 vs. high dep. = 1.9 (p < .01) | Weak |
Khan, 2017 [55] | 505 (14.3) | C | Self-reported average daily TV viewing, DVD viewing, computer use, and social media on weekdays and weekend days | Depression: CES-D 10 | MVPA, buffer In sedentary participants meeting the MVPA guidelines: REF. In sedentary participants not meeting the MVPA guidelines: OR 2.37 (95%CI 1.23–4.59) | Weak |
Kim, 2012 [56] | 75,066 (grades 7–12) | C | Self-reported internet use for non-educational purposes | Depression: depression rate via the Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey | Female sex, amplifier No internet users in boys: OR 1.21 (95%CI 1.13–1.30) Occasional internet users in boys: REF. Moderate internet users in boys: OR 1.11 (95%CI 1.02–1.21) Heavy internet users in boys: OR 1.33 (95%CI 1.12–1.59) No internet users in girls: OR 1.15 (95%CI 1.06–1.25) Occasional internet users in girls: REF. Moderate internet users in girls: OR 1.33 (95%CI 1.20–1.47) Heavy internet users in girls: OR 1.87 (95%CI 1.43–2.46) | Weak |
Kim, 2016 [57] | 2198 (middle schoolers) | L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported daily average hours of videogame playing | Depression: CESD-R | High neighborhood divorce rate, buffer Screen-based SB*divorce interaction β = −0.171 (p < .05) Neighborhood population size, null Screen-based SB*population size interaction β = 0.003 (p > .05) Neighborhood education level, null Screen-based SB*education interaction β = − 0.006 (p > .05) | Strong |
Kleppang, 2019 [58] | 3223 (ages 15–16) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: Hopkins Symptom Checklist-10 (HSCL-10) | Female sex, null Sex*screen-based SB interaction NS, not reported Year of investigation, null Year*screen-based SB interaction NS, not reported | Moderate |
Krejci, 2011 [59] | 599 (3.8) (Japanese) 497 (4.6) (Czech) | C | Parent-reported average use of videogames | Depression: Morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) and original sleep habit questionnaire | Japanese origin, buffer In Japanese children: χ2-value = 14.17 (p = .028) In Czech children: χ2-value = 5.83 (p = 0.757) | Weak |
Kremer, 2013 [60] | 8029 (11.5) | C | Self-reported screen-based SB via the Communities That Care Youth Survey (TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing) | Depression: Short MFQ | Female sex, null Screen-based SB*sex interaction p = .91 Younger age, amplifier Screen-based SB*age interaction p = .04 In older participants: Conditional OR 0.64 In younger participants: Conditional OR 0.88 Physical activity (PA), null Screen-based SB*PA interaction p = .92 | Moderate |
Lemola, 2015 [61] | 362 (14.8) | C | Self-reported average use of TV viewing, videogame playing, phone use/texting, and Internet use before going to sleep | Depression: six items from the CES-D (German version) | Age, null SB*age interaction p > .10 TV viewing and phone/texting, buffer TV: NS, not reported Videogames: β = 0.15, p = .005 Phone/texting: NS, not reported Internet use: β = 0.19, p < .001 | Weak |
Liu, 2016 [62] | 13,369 (15.2) | C | Self-reported TV viewing and computer/videogame use via the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) | Depression: CES-D Anxiety: Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) | Female sex and computer/videogames, amplifier (dep.) TV in boys: OR 1.33 (95%CI 1.02–1.73) TV in girls: OR 1.62 (95% CI 1.19–2.21) Computer/videogames in boys: OR 1.61 (95%CI 1.28–2.03) Computer/videogames in girls: OR 1.96 (95%CI 1.42–2.71) Female sex, null Computer/videogames, amplifier (anx.) TV in boys: OR 1.43 (95%CI 1.05–1.95) TV in girls: OR 1.51 (95%CI 0.96–2.38) Computer/videogames in boys: OR 1.40 (95%CI 1.06–1.86) Computer/videogames in girls: OR 1.78 (95%CI 1.09–2.89) | Weak |
Maras, 2015 [63] | 2482 (14.1) | C | The Leisure-Time Sedentary Activities Questionnaire (TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing) | Depression: CDI Anxiety: MASC-10 | TV viewing, buffer (dep.) TV: β = 0.03, p > .05 Computer: β = 0.17, p < .001 Videogames: β = 0.13, p < .001 Videogames, amplifier (anx.) TV: β = 0.03, p > .05 Computer: β = −0.03, p > .05 Videogames: β = 0.11, p < .001 | Weak |
Mathers, 2009 [64] | 925 (16.1) | C | Multimedia Activity Recall for Children and Adolescents (MARCA) (TV viewing, computer use, videogame playing, and telephone/texting) | Depression and Anxiety: Kessler-10 | Videogame playing, amplifier (dep. and anx.) Computer use, buffer (dep. and anx.) TV: OR 1.03 (95%CI 0.62–1.70) Computer: OR 0.61 (95%CI 0.38–0.96) Videogames: OR 1.79 (95%CI 1.17–2.73) Telephone/texting: OR 1.13 (95%CI 0.74–1.74) | Weak |
McHale, 2009 [65] | 469 youth (12.8 & 15.7) | C | Self-reported TV viewing | Depression: CES-D | Low parental education values, amplifier TV in those with parents with high education values: NS, not stated TV in those with parents with low education values: λ = −.002 (p < .05) Parental cultural orientations, null TV viewing*cultural orientations interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
McVeigh, 2016 [4] | 2411 (aged 1 at baseline) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Parent-reported and self-reported TV viewing | Depression and Anxiety: Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) | Female sex, null (dep. and anx.) In boys: RR 1.00 (95%CI 0.72–1.38) (dep. and anx.) In girls: RR 1.09 (95%CI 0.87–1.36) (dep. and anx.) | Moderate |
Mistry, 2007 [66] | 2707 (ages 30–33 months at baseline) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Parent-reported TV viewing | Depression and Anxiety: Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) internalizing subscale | Household income, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*household income interaction NS, not reported Parental involvement, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*parental involvement interaction NS, not reported | Moderate |
Mundy, 2017 [67] | 876 (9.0) | C | Parent-reported average weekly time spent in TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Videogame playing, amplifier (dep. and anx.) Female sex, buffer (dep. and anx.) TV in boys: OR 1.00 (95%CI 0.96–1.03) TV in girls: OR 1.02 (95%CI 0.99–1.05) Computer in boys: OR 0.98 (95%CI 0.94–1.02) Computer in girls: OR 1.04 (95%CI 0.99–1.08) Videogames in boys: 1.07 (95%CI 1.04–1.11) Videogames in girls: 1.03 (95%CI 0.98–1.08) | Weak |
Nakamura, 2012 [68] | 3464 (10.1) | C | Self-reported average daily TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression: single-item on subjective health complaint scale | TV Viewing, buffer TV: NS, not reported Computer: effect estimate not reported-positive association (p < .001) Videogames: effect estimate not reported-positive association, (p = .001) | Weak |
Ohannessian, 2009 [69] | 328 (15.0) | C/L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Self-reported average daily TV viewing, emailing/IM-ing/surfing the web, videogame playing, and text messaging | Depression: CES-DC Anxiety: SCARED | Female sex, amplifier (dep.) Surfing the web, null (dep.) Screen-based SB*sex interaction (p < .05) (TV viewing) TV: NS, not reported Surfing the web: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Videogames: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Texting: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Parental alcoholism, null (dep.) Parental alcoholism* screen-based SB interaction NS, not reported Female sex, amplifier (anx.) Screen-based SB*sex interaction (p < .05) (TV viewing and videogames) Surfing the web, amplifier (anx.) TV: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Surfing the web: F (7,154) = 6.02 (p < .05) (long. only) Videogames: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Texting: NS, not reported (cross-sec. and long.) Parental alcoholism, amplifier (anx.) Parental alcoholism*surfing the web interaction (p < .05) (cross-sec. and long.) Parental alcoholism*sex*videogame interaction (p < .05) (cross-sec.) | Weak |
Ohannessian, 2018 [70] | 441 (17.1) | L (screen-based SB predicting anxiety symptoms) | Self-reported average daily videogame playing | Anxiety: SCARED | Female sex and playing with others (social context), amplifiers Videogame*sex interaction p < .001 Videogame*sex*social context interaction p < .01 | Weak |
Parkes, 2013 [71] | 11,014 (age 5 at baseline) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Parent-reported average daily hours of TV viewing and computer/videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*sex interaction p > .05 (TV viewing and computer/videogames) TV Viewing, null (dep. and anx.) TV 0 h daily: β = −0.05 (p = .66) TV < 1 h daily: REF. TV 1–3 h daily: β = 0.02 (p = .64) TV > 3 h daily: β = 0.01 (p = .91) Computer/videogames 0 h daily: β = 0.07 (p = .09) Computer/videogames < 1 h daily: REF. Computer/ videogames 1–3 h daily: β = 0.03 (p = .48) Computer/videogames > 3 h daily: β = 0.26 (p = .11) | Moderate |
Poulain, 2018 [72] | 527 (3.8) | L (bi-directional) | Parent-reported average hours of TV viewing, videogames, computer use, and mobile phone use | Depression and Anxiety: SDQ, emotional subscale | Female sex, null (dep. and anx., bi-directionally) Screen-based SB*sex interaction p > .05 Age, null (dep. and anx., bi-directionally) Screen-based SB*age interaction p > .05 Socioeconomic status, null (dep. and anx., bi-directionally) Screen-based SB*socioeconomic status interaction p > .05 TV viewing, null (dep. and anx., bi-directionally) Screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms TV: OR 0.63 (95%CI 0.35–1.12) Computer: OR 0.98 (95%CI 0.35–2.77) Videogames: OR 0.47 (95%CI 0.09–2.34) Mobile phone: OR 0.68 (95%CI 0.17–2.68) Internalizing symptoms predicting screen-based SB TV: OR 0.96 (95%CI 0.80–1.16) Computer: OR 0.96 (95%CI 0.78–1.18) Videogames: OR 1.10 (95%CI 0.87–1.39) Mobile phone: OR 0.87 (95%CI 0.66–1.15) | Moderate |
Primack, 2009 [73] | 4142 (21.8 at follow-up) | L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported average hours of TV viewing, video viewing, and videogames | Depression: CES-D | Female sex, buffer Screen-based SB*sex interaction OR 0.93 (95%CI 0.88–0.99) TV viewing, amplifier TV: OR 1.08 (95%CI 1.01–1.06) Videos: OR 1.03 (95%CI 0.86–1.25) Videogames: OR 1.04 (95%CI 0.89–1.22) | Strong |
Primack, 2011 [74] | 106 (12.7) | C | Self-reported media use (TV viewing, videogames, and computer use) | Depression: DSM-III or DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder | Female sex, null Screen-based SB*sex interaction term NS, not reported Age, null Screen-based SB*age interaction term NS, not reported TV viewing, null TV: OR 1.2 (95%CI 0.8–1.7) Computer: OR 1.1 (95%CI 0.7–1.6) Videogames: OR 1.3 (95% CI 0.8–2.1) | Weak |
Robinson, 2011 [75] | 1860 (14.0) | C | Self-reported average daily hours of TV viewing and computer use | Depression and Anxiety: CBCL (internalizing subscale) | Female sex, null Screen-based SB*sex interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Romer, 2013 [76] | 719 (ages 12–24) | L (screen-based SB predicting depressive symptoms) | Self-reported average time TV viewing, computer use, and videogames | Depression: Youth Risk Behavior Survey (2 items, reports of sadness or hopelessness) | Younger age, null Screen-based SB*age interaction NS, not reported TV viewing, buffer TV: NS, not reported Computer: β = 0.12 (p = .039) Videogames: β = 0.14 (p = .001) | Weak |
Rottenberg, 2014 [77] | 363 (15.8–17.0) | L (depression predicting screen-based SB) | Self-reported TV viewing and computer use via YRBS | Depression: Interview Schedule for Children and Adolescents Diagnostic Version (ISCA-D) | TV viewing, null TV: OR 1.53 (95%CI 1.19–1.95) Computer: OR 1.31 (95%CI 1.05–1.62) | Moderate |
Schmitz, 2002 [78] | 3798 (12.8) | L (depressive symptoms predicting screen-based SB) | Self-reported average time of TV viewing and playing videogames | Depression: CES-D | Female sex, null In boys: mean sed. Score amongst those with most depressive symptoms = 12.66 (95%CI 12.24–13.08) (p < .01) In girls: mean sed. Score amongst those with most depressive symptoms = 10.28 (95%CI 9.99–10.58) (p < .01) | Moderate |
Schreck, 2016 [79] | 178 (11.3) | C | Parent-reported average time spent TV viewing, using the computer, and playing videogames | Depression: CBCL, withdrawn/depressed subscale | Female sex, null In boys: β = 0.05 (p > .05) In girls: β = 0.05 (p > .05) | Weak |
Selfhout, 2009 [80] | 307 (15.5) | L (screen-based SB predicting internalizing symptoms) | Self-reported average time spent instant messaging or surfing the web | Depression: CDI Anxiety: SCARED | Female sex, null (dep. and anx.) screen-based SB*sex interaction p > .05 (instant messaging and surfing the web) Low perceived friendship quality (surfing the web), amplifier (dep. and anx.) Low perceived friendship quality (instant messaging), buffer (dep. only) Screen-based SB*friendship quality interaction β = − 0.23 (p < .01) (dep.) (instant messaging) Screen-based SB*friendship quality interaction β = 0.20 (p < .01) (dep.) (surfing the web) Screen-based SB*friendship quality interaction β = .03 (p > .05) (anx.) (instant messaging) Screen-based SB*friendship quality interaction β = .13 (p < .01) (anx.) (surfing the web) High instant messaging and low friendship quality: β = − 0.27 (p < .01) vs. high instant messaging and high friendship quality: β = 0.02 (p > .05) (dep.) High surfing the web and low friendship quality: β = 0.33 (p < .01) vs. high surfing the web and high friendship quality: β = 0.05 (p > .05) (dep.) High surfing the web and low friendship quality: β = 0.22 (p < .01) vs. high surfing the web and high friendship quality: β = 0.03 (p > .05) (anx.) Female sex and low perceived friendship quality, null (dep. and anx.) Screen-based SB*sex*friendship quality interaction p > .05 (instant messaging and surfing the web) | Moderate |
Singer, 1998 [81] | 2245 (11.0) | C | Self-reported daily average time watching TV | Depression and Anxiety: Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSCC), depression and anxiety subscales | Female sex, amplifier (dep.) Depression rate in boys: low TV = 7.0%, high TV = 10.6% (p > .05) Depression rate in girls: low TV = 5.8%, high TV = 17.8% (p < .01) Female sex, null (anx.) Anxiety rate in boys: low TV = 5.5%, high TV = 12.4% (p < .01) Anxiety rate in girls: low TV = 7.0%, high TV = 15.3% (p < .01) | Weak |
Straker, 2013 [82] | 643 (14.0) | C | MARCA | Depression: BDI Depression and Anxiety: CBCL, internalizing subscale | Female sex, buffer (dep., BDI) Computer (instrumental) in boys: median (IQR) = 3.0 (4.0) vs. computer (for games): median (IQR) = 4.0 (7.0) vs. videogames: median (IQR) = 4.0 (7.0) (p = .046) Computer (instrumental) in girls: median (IQR) = 5.0 (8.0) vs. computer (for games): median (IQR) = 5.0 (9.0) vs. videogames: Not reported (p = .995) Female sex, null (dep. and anx., CBCL) Computer (instrumental) in boys: median (IQR) = 7.4 (5.0) vs. computer (for games): median (IQR) = 10.0 (6.8) vs. videogames: median (IQR) = 9.1 (6.1) (p = .071) Computer (instrumental) in girls: median (IQR) = 10.2 (6.5) vs. computer (for games): median (IQR) = 10.2 (6.6) vs. videogames: Not reported (p = .950) | Weak |
Suchert, 2015 [16] | 1296 (13.7) | C | Self-reported time spent TV viewing, computer use, videogames, and mobile phone on the most recent school day and the most recent Sunday | Depression: CES-D (depressed affect subscale) | Female sex, amplifier In boys: β = −0.024 (p = .552) In girls: β = 0.094 (p = .032) | Moderate |
Trinh, 2015 [83] | 2660 (15.8) | C | Self-reported daily average time spent TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression: CES-D (4 items: sad, lonely, depressed, crying) | Female sex, buffer In boys: OR 2.82 (95%CI 1.09–7.30) In girls: OR 1.65 (95%CI 0.87–3.16) PA, null Screen-based SB*PA interaction NS, not reported | Weak |
Twenge, 2018 [84] | 388,275 (grades 8–10) | C | Self-reported average daily time spent TV viewing, social media use, and internet use for news | Depression: 6 items from the Bentler Medical and Psychological Functioning Inventory, depression subscale | Social Media and Female sex, amplifier TV in boys: r = 0.02 (p < .05) Internet for news in boys: r = −0.02 (p > .05) Social media in boys: r = 0.01 (p > .05) TV in girls: r = 0.03 (p < .001) Internet for news in girls: r = 0.01 (p > .05) Social media in girls: r = 0.06 (p < .001) Low in-person social interaction, amplifier Social media*social interaction p < .001 Social media among those with low in-person social interaction: F(1, 9765) = 185.35 (p < .001) Social media among those with high in-person social interaction: F(1, 11,271) = 2.21 (p = .14) | Weak |
Whiteley, 2011 [85] | 1518 (15.3) | C | Self-reported average weekly computer use and mobile phone use | Depression: CES-D8 | Computer use, null Computer: β = 0.01 (p = .777) Mobile phone: β = 0.001 (p = .980) | Weak |
Wu, 2017 [86] | 4875 (ages 10–11) | L (screen-based SB predicting depression and anxiety) | Self-reported average daily time spent TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: Clinical diagnoses defined by the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification or Tenth Revision | TV viewing, buffer (dep. and anx.) TV < 1 h/day, REF. TV 1–2 h/day, IRR 0.98 (95CI 0.74–1.29) TV 3–4 h/day, IRR 0.93 (95%CI 0.71–1.23) TV 5h hours/day, IRR 0.77 (95%CI 0.56–1.06) Computer/videogames < 1 h/day, REF. Computer/videogames 1–2 h/day, IRR 1.56 (95%CI 1.26–1.93) Computer/videogames 3–4 h/day, IRR 1.42 (95%CI 1.06–1.91) Computer/videogames 5h hours/day, IRR 1.67 (95%CI 1.10–2.54) | Moderate |
Wu, 2018 [87] | 4861 (ages 10–11) | L (screen-based SB predicting depression and anxiety) | Self-reported average daily time spent TV viewing, computer use, and videogame playing | Depression and Anxiety: Clinical diagnoses defined by the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification or Tenth Revision | Female sex, amplifier (dep. and anx.) TV in boys: < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 1.09 (95%CI 0.78–1.53) 3–4 h/day, HR 1.12 (95% CI 0.79–1.60) 5h hours/day, HR 1.06 (95%CI 0.72–1.57) TV in girls: < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 0.80 (95%CI 0.63–1.00) (p < .05) 3–4 h/day, HR 0.81 (95%CI 0.63–1.04) 5h hours/day, HR 0.85 (95%CI 0.63–1.16) Computer/videogames in boys: < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 1.43 (95%CI 1.13–1.81) 3–4 h/day, HR 1.23 (95%CI 0.89–1.69) 5h hours/day, HR 1.35 (95%CI 0.93–1.96) Computer/videogames in girls: < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 1.18 (95%CI 1.00–1.42) (p < .05) 3–4 h/day, HR 1.31 (95%CI 1.00–1.74) (p < .05) 5h hours/day, HR 1.04 (95%CI 0.61–1.79) TV viewing, buffer (dep. and anx.) TV (entire sample): < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 0.89 (95%CI 0.74–1.08) 3–4 h/day, HR 0.91 (95%CI 0.74–1.11) 5h hours/day, HR 0.91 (95%CI 0.72–1.16) Computer/videogames (entire sample): < 1 h/day, REF. 1, 2 hours/day, HR 1.27 (95%CI 1.11–1.47) 3–4 h/day, HR 1.25 (95%CI 1.02–1.55) 5h hours/day, HR 1.23 (95%CI 0.92–1.64) | Moderate |
Yan, 2017 [88] | 2625 (15.1) | C | Self-reported average daily time spent TV viewing, videogame playing, studying on electronic devices, using social networking sites, or watching videos on school days and non-school days | Anxiety: The Middle School Student Mental Health Scale | TV viewing, buffer (school days) TV: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = − 0.023 (p = .210) 2–4 h/day, β = − 0.094 (p = .047) 4h hours/day, β = − 0.082 (p = .408) Videogames: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = − 0.027 (p = .199) 2–4 h/day, β = − 0.018 (p = .664) 4h hours/day, β = − 0.167 (p = .058) Studying on electronic devices: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.012 (p = .542) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.062 (p = .036) 4h hours/day, β = 0.190 (p = .002) Social networking sites: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.037 (p = .078) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.085 (p = .01) 4h hours/day, β = 0.106 (p = .025) Videos: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.009 (p = .661) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.001 (p = .970) 4h hours/day, β = 0.013 (p = .846) Social networking sites, amplifier (non-school days) TV: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = − 0.033 (p = .131) 2–4 h/day, β = − 0.031 (p = .129) 4h hours/day, β = 0.034 (p = .208) Videogames: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = − 0.033 (p = .118) 2–4 h/day, β = − 0.028 (p = .192) 4h hours/day, β = − 0.010 (p = .711) Studying on electronic devices: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.052 (p = .059) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.041 (p = .135) 4h hours/day, β = 0.060 (p = .055) Social networking sites: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.072 (p = .009) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.087 (p = .002) 4h hours/day, β = 0.087 (p = .005) Videos: Never, REF. < 1 h/day, β = 0.001 (p = .975) 2–4 h/day, β = 0.001 (p = .964) 4h hours/day, β = 0.049 (p = .106) | Weak |
Yang, 2013 [89] | 10,829 (ages 10–12) | C | Self-reported average daily TV viewing and computer use (Internet games, non-Internet games, Internet for chatting, and “other” computer use) | Depression: select items from the SCL-90 | Female sex and TV viewing, amplifiers (sad or little interest in doing things) TV in boys: OR 2.13 (95%CI 1.61–2.82) TV in girls: OR 3.54 (95%CI 2.59–4.85) Internet games in boys: OR 2.20 (95%CI 1.65–2.93) Internet games in girls: OR 2.85 (95%CI 1.70–4.78) Non-internet games in boys: OR 1.87 (95%CI 1.36–2.58) Non-internet games in girls: OR 2.25 (95%CI 1.28–3.97) Internet for chatting in boys: OR 2.0 (95%CI 1.42–2.84) Internet chatting in girls: OR 2.88 (95%CI 1.99–4.16) “Other” computer use in boys: OR 1.85 (95%CI 1.22–2.81) “Other” computer use in girls: OR 2.63 (95%CI 1.44–4.82) Female sex and Internet games, amplifiers (cried easily or wanted to cry) TV in boys: OR 2.37 (95%CI 1.66–3.40) TV in girls: OR 2.29 (95%CI 1.68–3.13) Internet games in boys: OR 1.79 (95%CI 1.20–2.65) Internet games in girls: OR 3.16 (95%CI 1.94–5.15) Non-internet games in boys: OR 1.82 (95%CI 1.19–2.79) Non-internet games in girls: OR 2.19 (95%CI 1.27–3.75) Internet for chatting in boys: OR 2.05 (95%CI 1.32–3.17) Internet chatting in girls: OR 2.60 (95%CI 1.83–3.69) “Other” computer use in boys: OR 2.67 (95%CI 1.64–4.36) “Other” computer use in girls: OR 2.91 (95%CI 1.63–5.17) Female sex and other computer use, amplifiers (sad or blue) TV in boys: OR 2.61 (95% 1.85–3.68) TV in girls: OR 2.52 (95%CI 1.79–3.55) Internet games in boys: OR 2.23 (95%CI 1.55–3.22) Internet games in girls: OR 2.76 (95%CI 1.62–4.68) Non-internet games in boys: OR 1.97 (95%CI 1.30–2.98) Non-internet games in girls: OR 2.70 (95%CI 1.52–4.78) Internet for chatting in boys: OR 2.26 (95%CI 1.48–3.46) Internet chatting in girls: OR 3.31 (95%CI 2.29–4.80) “Other” computer use in boys: OR 2.64 (95%CI 1.63–4.27) “Other” computer use in girls: OR 3.88 (95%CI 2.16–6.97) Female sex and time on Internet for chatting, amplifiers (hopeless about future) TV in boys: OR 2.91 (95% 2.09–4.06) TV in girls: OR 3.06 (95%CI 2.09–4.47) Internet games in boys: OR 2.70 (95%CI 1.90–3.83) Internet games in girls: OR 4.48 (95%CI 2.57–7.79) Non-internet games in boys: OR 3.13 (95%CI 2.18–4.47) Non-internet games in girls: OR 3.57 (95%CI 1.94–6.56) Internet for chatting in boys: OR 3.01 (95%CI 2.05–4.41) Internet chatting in girls: OR 5.41 (95%CI 3.68–7.96) “Other” computer use in boys: OR 2.92 (95%CI 1.84–4.63) “Other” computer use in girls: OR 4.89 (95%CI 2.62–9.12) | Weak |
Ybarra, 2005 [90] | 1501 (14.1) | C | Self-reported amount of general internet use | Depression: DSM-IV symptomology (major depression vs. minor depression vs, mild/no depression) | Female sex, amplifier In boys: Conditional OR 2.04 (0.90–4.65) (p = .09) In girls: Conditional OR 3.57 (95%CI 1.70–7.50) (p < .001) | Strong |