Table 1 Data abstraction table

Amouzou, A. et al., 2012 [32]

Niger

Case Study

Children under 5 in Niger

n = N/A

Multisectoral programmes and policies focused on maternal, newborn and child health

On-going since 1996

Yes

Decrease in stunting prevalence for children aged 24–35 months from 67 to 54% in 2009 (13% reduction)

Childhood mortality

5.1% annual reduction in U5MR with 10% of this reduction attributed to reductions in stunting prevalence.

Huicho, L. et al., 2016 [37]

Peru

Children under 5 in Peru

n = N/A

Policies and programmes for reducing poverty, reforming the health sector, and improving reproductive health, nutrition and maternal and child health.

On-going since 2005

Yes

Stunting prevalence decreased from 30% in 2000 to 17.5% in 2013

Calculate % reduction

Under 5 mortality decreased by 58% (from 2000 to 2013).

Kanyuka, M. et al., 2016 [29]

Malawi

Children under 5 in Malawin = N/A

Policies, programmes and funding allocation that aimed to increase coverage of high-impact interventions that addressed the main causes of childhood mortality

On-going since 1990’s

Yes

Stunting deceased by 11.1% between 2000 and 2013

Under 5 mortality fell from 247 deaths/1000 livebirths to 71/1000 from 1990 to 2013 with 8.6% of this reduction attributed to reductions in stunting prevalence.

Ruducha, J., 2017 [26]

Ethiopia

Children under 5 in Ethiopia

n = N/A

Policies and programmes for reducing poverty and improving agricultural productivity, food security, water supply, and sanitation.

On-going since before 2000’s

Yes

Stunting prevalence decreased from almost 60% in 2000 to 40% in 2014 (20% decrease)

Under 5 mortality decreased from 205 deaths/1000 livebirths in 1990 to 64 deaths/1000 livebirths in 2013 with 44% for this reduction attributed to reductions in stunting prevalence.

Andersen, T. et al., 2015 [38]

Peru

Prospective cohort study

Children 7–8 in Peru

n = 1960

Conditional Cash Transfer programme (CCT) “Juntos”

On-going since 2005

Yes

Only in boys exposed to CCT for 2y or more: 0.43-point increase in HAZ score [95% CI: 0.09–0.77], p < 0.01)

Language development and school achievement

No significant effects observed.

Fernald, L.C.H. et al., 2008 [39]

Mexico

Retrospective cohort study

Children 24–68 months old who were exposed to “Opportunidades” their whole lives n = 2449 children

Conditional Cash Transfer programme “Opportunidades”

On-going since 1998

Yes

Doubled cash transfer associated with:

0.2 [95%CI: 0.09–0.30], p < 0.0001) increase in HAZ score, 10% 0(p < 0.0001) decrease in stunting

Cognitive, motor and language development

Doubled cash transfer associated with:

0.06 (p = 0.67) points higher in motor skill and 1.15 (p = 0.001) higher in endurance; 0.12 (p = 0.002) point higher in long-term memory, 0.13 (p < 0.0001) points higher in short-term memory and 0.08 (p = 0.02) point higher in visual integration;: 0.18 (p < 0.0001) higher language score

Fernald, L.C.H. et al., 2009 [40]

Mexico

Retrospective cohort study

Children 8–10 years who were part of an early vs. late (18 mo. difference) introduction to Conditional Cash Transfer programme “Opportunidades”

n = 1793

Conditional Cash Transfer programme “Opportunidades”

On-going since 1998

Yes

Additional 18 mo. Of CCT for children of uneducated mothers:

1.5 cm (p = 0.029) increase in HAZ/ 0.23-point HAZ increase (95% CI = 0.23–0.44)

Cognitive, language and socioemotional development

Early vs. late treatment: Reduced behavioural problems (mean score − 0·09 vs. 1·03 (p = 0·0024)

Hoddinnott, J. et al., 2008

Guatemala

Retrospective Cohort Study

Adults 25–42 exposed to supplementation trial from ages 0 to 7

n = 1338

nutritional supplementation (protein supplementation beverage “atole”)

8 years

Yes

- Stunting to < 20% (from baseline of 45%)

-2.4 cm (p < 0.005) increase in length of children at 3 years of age

Annual income, hours worked, average hourly wages

For exposure at 0–24 months only:

0.665 US$/h (p = 0.009) higher

Hoddinott, J. et al., 2013

Guatemala

Retrospective cohort study

Adults 25–42 exposed to supplementation trial from ages 0 to 7

n = 1338

Nutritional supplementation (protein supplementation beverage “atole”)

8 years

Yes

- Stunting to < 20% (from baseline of 45%)-2.4 cm (p < 0.005) increase in length of children at 3 years of age

Schooling-related outcomes, health outcomes, labor market outcomes

1 SD improvement in HAZ leads to:

0.78 (p = 0.003) increase in highest grade attained, 0.28 (p = 0.003) increase in reading score, 0.25 increase in non-verbal cognitive ability (0.002); 5 (p = 0.003) increase in hand strengthBeing stunted at 24 mo. leads to: leaving school 3.14 (p = 0.026) years younger, Achieving 4.64 (p = 0.004) less school grades, 1.26 (0.013) lower reading score, 1.12 (p = 0.006) lower nonverbal cognitive ability score, 22 point (p = 0.008) lower hand strength, 41% (0.017) lower likelihood of being skilled laborer or white collar worker

Kinra, S. et al., 2008 [41]

India

Retrospective cohort study

13–18 year-old adolescents who were part of nutrition and public health intervention as children (under 6 years old) n = 1165 adolescents

Nutritional supplementation (protein-calorie supplementation) and public health programmes

3 years

Yes

In exposed to intervention:

14 mm (p = 0.07) taller

Cardiovascular health

20% (p = 0.02) more favorable insulin resistance index, 3.3% (P = 0.008) more favorable arterial health

Nkhoma, O.W.W. et al., 2013 [30]

Malawi

Prospective cohort study

6–8-year-old children in Malawi

n = 226 children

School feeding program (increased micronutrient and caloric intake)

1 year

No

No significant effects on linear growth in comparison to control school

Cognitive ability

After 9-month exposure to supplement: decrease in errors made in one element of learning from 24.9 in control to 18.5 in intervention (p-interaction = 0.02)

Stein, A.D. et al., 2008 [36]

Guatemala

Prospective cohort study

Adults 25–42 exposed to supplementation trial from ages 0 to 7

n = 1448

Nutritional supplementation (protein supplementation beverage “atole”)

8 years

Yes

- Stunting to < 20% (from baseline of 45%)

-2.4 cm (p < 0.005) increase in length of children at 3 years of age

Reading comprehension, cognitive functioning

Exposure to supplement 0–12 mo.:6.39 [95%CI: 0.79–11.99] increase in reading comprehension score, 2.09 [95%CI: 0.79–3.99] increase in cognitive functioning score.

Argaw, A. et al., 2018 [27]

Ethiopia

2 × 2 factorial randomized controlled trial

Mothers and their children ages 6–12 months in 3 districts of the Jimma zone in Southwest Ethiopia between November 2013 to February 2015

n = 360 mother-infant pairs

Nutritional supplementation (n-3 long-chain PUFA supplementation)

12 months

No

No significant effect of the supplementation was observed on linear growth.

Child health

No significant effect on morbidity or systemic inflammation.

van der Merwe, L.F. et al., 2013 [31]

Gambia

Randomized, double-blind control trial

Rural Gambian infants (3–9 months old)

n = 172

Nutritional supplementation (long-chain PUFA supplementation)

6 months

No

No significant effect of the supplementation was observed on linear growth.

Cognitive development and morbidity in the infants

No significant effects on cognitive development, intestinal function or morbidity were detected.

Yousafzai, A.K. et al., 2014 [42]

Pakistan

Cluster-randomised 2X2 factorial effectiveness trial

Children 0–24 months old

n = 1489

Nutritional supplementation (multiple micronutrient powders)

3 years

Yes

Nutritional supplementation resulted in:

0.2 increase in HAZ score (p < 0.0001) at 6 mo. and 0.2 increase in HAZ score (p = 0.02) at 18 months.

Cognitive, language, motor and social-emotional development and child health

Nutritional supplementation resulted in:

3.4 higher cognition scores [95%CI: 1.1–5.7], 5.1 higher language scores [95%CI: 2.9–7.3], 2.9 higher motor score [95%CI: 0.5–5.3].

Samuel, A. et al., 2018 [28]

Ethiopia

Quasi-experimental matched-control study

Children 6–23 months old

N = 1172

Nutritional supplementation (complementary feeding program paired with low iron dose multiple micronutrient powders)

37 weeks

Yes

Nutritional supplementation resulted in:

0.18 (SE: 0.05, p < 0.05) significant increase in HAZ score and an odds ratio (OR) for stunting of 0.49 [95% CI: 0.40–0.60] after 37 weeks of intervention (i.e. 51% reduced odds of stunting in the intervention group)

Child health

No significant positive effects observed on child health.

Masuda, K. & Chitundu, M., 2019 [33]

Zambia

Two-arm randomized control trial

Children 6–18 months of age

N = 547

Nutritional supplementation (Micronutrient supplementation using spirulina platensis)

12 months

No

No significant effect on linear growth.

Child health and motor development

Nutritional supplementation resulted in:

Reduction in the incidence of cough by 11% [95% CI : -0.23–0.00] and non-significant reductions in incidence of pneumonia (−0.17, [95% CI: −0.17,0.04]), severe fever (− 0.03, 95% CI = − 0.13, 0.06) and fever (− 0.09, [95% CI: − 0.19, 0.02])

Increase in probability of being able to walk alone by 15 months by 8% [95%CI : 0.02–0.14]