| Low SES (n = 325) | Medium SES (n = 373) | High SES (n = 433) | Total (n = 1131) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age, years | 70.9 ± 6.6 | 68.5 ± 6.5 | 68.7 ± 5.9 | 69.5 ± 6.5*** |
Education, years | 3.3 ± 2.8 | 4.7 ± 3.2 | 4.4 ± 3.4 | 4.4 ± 3.4*** |
Gender | ||||
 Women | 245 (56.6) | 164 (44.0) | 143 (44.0) | 552 (48.8)*** |
 Men | 188 (43.4) | 209 (56.0) | 182 (31.4) | 579 (51.2) |
Ethnicity | ||||
 Malay | 382 (88.2) | 322 (86.3) | 281 (28.5) | 985 (87.1) |
 Chinese | 45 (10.4) | 42 (11.3) | 39 (12.0) | 126 (11.1) |
 India & Others | 6 (1.4) | 9 (2.4) | 5 (1.5) | 18 (1.6) |
Marital status | ||||
 Single | 11 (3.4) | 9 (2.5) | 6 (1.4) | 26 (2.4)*** |
 Married | 204 (63.8) | 264 (72.1) | 333 (79.3) | 801 (72.4) |
 Divorced | 105 (32.8) | 93 (25.4) | 81 (19.3) | 279 (25.2) |
Smoking | ||||
 Non-smoker | 280 (87.5) | 308 (84.2) | 384 (91.4) | 972 (87.9)** |
 Smoker | 40 (12.5) | 58 (15.8) | 36 (8.6) | 134 (12.1) |
Living Status | ||||
 With others | 266 (83.1) | 324 (88.5) | 401 (95.5) | 991 (89.6)*** |
 Alone | 54 (16.9) | 42 (11.5) | 19 (4.5) | 115 (10.4) |
Medical History | ||||
 Diabetes | ||||
  No | 334 (77.1) | 277 (74.3) | 245 (75.4) | 856 (75.7) |
  Yes | 99 (22.9) | 96 (25.7) | 80 (24.6) | 275 (24.3) |
 Hypertension | ||||
  No | 209 (48.3) | 192 (51.5) | 173 (53.2) | 574 (50.8) |
  Yes | 224 (51.7) | 181 (48.5) | 152 (46.8) | 557 (49.2) |
 Vision or hearing | ||||
  No | 951 (84.1) | 312 (83.6) | 295 (90.8) | 951 (84.1)*** |
  Yes | 180 (15.9) | 61 (16.4) | 30 (9.2) | 180 (15.9) |
 Urinary incontinence | ||||
  No | 294 (90.5) | 327 (87.7) | 374 (86.4) | 995 (88.0) |
  Yes | 31 (9.5) | 46 (12.3) | 59 (13.6) | 136 (12.0) |
 Constipation | ||||
  No | 368 (85.0) | 326 (87.4) | 296 (91.1) | 990 (87.5)* |
  Yes | 65 (15.0) | 47 (12.6) | 29 (8.9) | 141 (12.5) |
 Asthma | ||||
  No | 371 (85.7) | 336 (90.1) | 303 (93.2) | 1042 (94.2)** |
  Yes | 62 (14.3) | 37 (9.9) | 22 (6.8) | 64 (5.8) |
 Heart disease | ||||
  No | 392 (90.5) | 336 (90.1) | 286 (88.8) | 1014 (89.7) |
  Yes | 41 (9.5) | 37 (9.9) | 39 (11.2) | 117 (10.3) |
 Arthritis | ||||
  No | 249 (76.6) | 273 (73.2) | 307 (70.9) | 829 (73.3) |
  Yes | 76 (23.4) | 100 (26.8) | 126 (29.1) | 302 (26.7) |
 Stroke | ||||
  No | 316 (98.2) | 363 (97.3) | 423 (97.7) | 1105 (97.7) |
  Yes | 6 (1.8) | 10 (2.7) | 10 (2.3) | 26 (2.3) |
 Hypercholesterolemia | ||||
  No | 232 (71.4) | 282 (75.6) | 338 (78.1) | 852 (75.3) |
  Yes | 93 (28.6) | 91 (24.4) | 95 (21.9) | 279 (24.7) |
Anthropometry | ||||
 Body Mass Index, kg/m2 | 25.7 ± 4.2 | 24.7 ± 4.1 | 24.0 ± 4.7 | 24.7 ± 4.4*** |
 Waist Hip Ratio | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 0.9 ± 0.1 |
 Weight, kg | 56.0 ± 12.1 | 60.2 ± 11.5 | 62.8 ± 12.2 | 59.3 ± 12.2*** |
 Height, cm | 152.6 ± 8.7 | 155.8 ± 8.2 | 156.2 ± 8.6 | 154.7 ± 8.7*** |
 MUAC, cm | 27.4 ± 3.6 | 28.3 ± 3.2 | 28.9 ± 3.4 | 28.1 ± 3.5*** |
 Waist circumference, cm | 86.1 ± 12.3 | 87.5 ± 10.8 | 89.3 ± 10.7 | 87.5 ± 11.4** |
 Hip circumference, cm | 93.0 ± 9.9 | 95.0 ± 9.0 | 97.6 ± 9.2 | 95.0 ± 9.6*** |
 Calf circumference, cm | 31.3 ± 3.8 | 32.7 ± 3.4 | 33.7 ± 3.6 | 32.5 ± 3.8*** |
 BMI category, n(%) | ||||
  Underweight | 232 (54.1) | 162 (44.4) | 109 (34.4) | 503 (45.3)*** |
  Normal | 101 (23.5) | 107 (29.3) | 95 (30.0) | 303 (27.3) |
  Overweight | 96 (22.4) | 96 (26.3) | 113 (35.6) | 305 (27.5) |
Dietary | ||||
 Protein, per 1000 kcal/day | 44.8 ± 8.4 | 43.7 ± 8.5 | 43.5 ± 8.8 | 44.0 ± 8.6 |
 Carbohydrate, per 1000 kcal/day | 135.6 ± 20.4 | 135.9 ± 20.1 | 134.0 ± 19.6 | 135.2 ± 20.3 |
 Fat, per 1000 kcal/day | 31.1 ± 9.1 | 31.2 ± 7.6 | 32.2 ± 7.3 | 31.4 ± 8.1 |
 SFA, per 1000 kcal/day | 4.9 ± 2.8 | 5.0 ± 2.8 | 4.8 ± 2.8 | 4.9 ± 2.8 |
 Fibre, per 1000 kcal/day | 1.8 ± 1.1 | 2.1 ± 1.3 | 2.5 ± 1.4 | 2.1 ± 1.3 |
 Sugar, per 1000 kcal/day | 11.5 ± 9.0 | 14.0 ± 10.3 | 14.4 ± 9.0 | 13.2 ± 9.6 |
 Vitamin C, per 1000  kcal/day | 61.2 ± 44.9 | 64.8 ± 46.0 | 67.6 ± 43.5 | 64.2 ± 44.9 |
 Vitamin E, per 1000 kcal/day | 6.1 ± 26.9 | 7.4 ± 32.6 | 3.3 ± 3.5 | 5.0 ± 23.9 |
 Folate, per 1000 kcal/day | 54.4 ± 37.8 | 59.6 ± 45.4 | 66.1 ± 49.1 | 59.4 ± 44.0** |
 Sodium, per 100 kcal/day | 860.8 ± 590.1 | 865.7 ± 553.7 | 875.0 ± 542.2 | 866.5 ± 564.3 |
 Potassium, per 1000 kcal/day | 905.8 ± 257.5 | 904.5 ± 259.2 | 919.2 ± 284.8 | 909.2 ± 265.9 |
 Calcium, per 1000 kcal/day | 315.4 ± 137.8 | 333.9 ± 182.5 | 333.2 + 159.2 | 328.3 ± 161.7 |
 Iron, per 1000 kcal/day | 8.1 ± 2.7 | 8.0 ± 2.4 | 8.5 ± 2.8 | 8.2 ± 2.7 |
 Calorie restriction | ||||
  No | 123 (38.4) | 143 (39.1) | 179 (41.9) | 719 (66.8) |
  Yes | 197 (61.6) | 223 (33.4) | 170 (41.6) | 248 (58.1) |
 Fresh fruits intake (days/week) | 2.8 ± 2.2 | 3.1 ± 2.3 | 4.0 ± 2.4 | 3.2 ± 2.3*** |
 Ulam intake per week  (days/week) | 5.1 ± 2.3 | 5.5 ± 2.1 | 5.7 ± 2.1 | 5.4 ± 2.2*** |
Psychosocial | ||||
 Disability | 10.1 ± 10.3 | 9.9 ± 11.6 | 6.6 ± 9.4 | 8.9 ± 10.6 |
 Loneliness | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.3 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 0.7 | 3.3 ± 0.9 |
 Depression | 3.1 ± 2.3 | 2.5 ± 2.1 | 2.5 ± 2.0 | 2.7 ± 2.2*** |
Cognitive Function | ||||
 Digit span | 6.5 ± 1.9 | 7.2 ± 2.0 | 7.6 ± 2.4 | 7.0 ± 2.2*** |
 Digit symbol | 3.5 ± 1.4 | 4.1 ± 1.7 | 4.9 ± 2.3 | 4.1 ± 1.9*** |
 MMSE | 20.0 ± 4.9 | 22.7 ± 4.5 | 23.7 ± 4.5 | 22.0 ± 4.9*** |
 Percentile VRI | 29.1 ± 28.7 | 38.1 ± 31.5 | 43.4 ± 32.2 | 36.2 ± 31.3*** |
 Percentile VR II | 17.1 ± 23.8 | 28.3 ± 31.7 | 35.9 ± 35.0 | 26.3 ± 31.0*** |
Physical Fitness | ||||
 2 min step test, number | 54.0 ± 24.9 | 58.7 ± 25.8 | 63.9 ± 24.0 | 58.4 ± 25.3*** |
 Grip strength, kg | 20.7 ± 7.4 | 23.6 ± 7.7 | 24.1 ± 8.0 | 22.6 ± 7.8*** |
 Chair stand test, number | 8.6 ± 2.9 | 9.5 ± 2.9 | 10.0 ± 3.0 | 9.3 ± 3.0*** |
 Chair sit and reach, cm | −0.30 ± 12.1 | −2.0 ± 10.9 | −0.3 ± 10.9 | −0.8 ± 11.4 |
 TUG, seconds | 12.8 ± 4.0 | 11.4 ± 3.1 | 11.4 ± 2.9 | 12.0 ± 3.5*** |
 Back scratch test, cm | 17.0 ± 12.2 | 15.9 ± 12.6 | 16.5 ± 12.8 | 16.5 ± 12.5 |