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Table 3 Sociodemographic characteristic, medical profile, nutritional status, dietary intake and psychosocial profile of urban respondents [Presented as mean ± SD or n(%)]

From: Factors associated with poor socioeconomic status among Malaysian older adults: an analysis according to urban and rural settings

 

Low SES (n = 320)

Medium SES (n = 366)

High SES (n = 420)

Total (n = 1106)

Age, years

70.1 ± 6.1

68.5 ± 5.7

67.4 ± 5.7

68.6 ± 5.9***

Education years

3.3 ± 3.4

5.6 ± 3.7

8.3 ± 4.3

6.0 ± 4.4***

Gender

 Women

209 (65.3)

193 (52.7)

198 (47.1)

600 (54.2)***

 Men

111 (34.7)

173 (47.3)

222 (52.9)

506 (45.8)

Ethnicity

 Malay

96 (30.0)

129 (35.2)

200 (47.6)

425 (38.4)***

 Chinese

208 (65.0)

206 (56.3)

174 (41.4)

588 (53.2)

 India & Others

16 (5.0)

31 (8.5)

46 (11.0)

93 (8.4)

Marital status

 Single

11 (3.4)

9 (2.5)

6 (1.4)

26 (2.4)***

 Married

204 (63.8)

264 (72.1)

333 (79.3)

801 (72.4)

 Divorced

105 (32.8)

93 (25.4)

81 (19.3)

279 (25.2)

Smoking

 Non-smoker

280 (87.5)

308 (84.2)

384 (91.4)

972 (87.9)**

 Smoker

40 (12.5)

58 (15.8)

36 (8.6)

134 (12.1)

Living Status

 With others

266 (83.1)

324 (88.5)

401 (95.5)

991 (89.6)***

 Alone

54 (16.9)

42 (11.5)

19 (4.5)

115 (10.4)

Medical History

 Diabetes

  No

239 (74.7)

250 (68.3)

310 (73.8)

799 (72.2)

  Yes

81 (25.3)

116 (31.7)

110 (26.2)

307 (27.8)

 Hypertension

  No

155 (48.4)

171 (46.7)

211 (50.2)

537 (48.6)

  Yes

165 (51.6)

195 (53.3)

209 (49.8)

569 (51.4)

 Vision or hearing

  No

287 (89.7)

330 (90.2)

389 (92.6)

1006 (91.0)

  Yes

33 (10.3)

36 (9.8)

31 (7.4)

100 (9.0)

 Urinary incontinence

  No

298 (93.1)

342 (93.4)

386 (91.9)

1026 (92.8)

  Yes

22 (6.9)

24 (6.6)

34 (8.1)

80 (7.2)

 Constipation

  No

308 (96.3)

348 (95.1)

404 (96.2)

1060 (95.8)

  Yes

12 (3.7)

18 (4.9)

16 (3.8)

46 (4.2)

 Asthma

  No

292 (91.3)

350 (95.6)

400 (95.2)

1042 (94.2)*

  Yes

28 (8.8)

16 (4.4)

20 (4.8)

64 (5.8)

 Heart disease

  No

289 (90.3)

327 (89.3)

373 (88.8)

989 (89.4)

  Yes

31 (9.7)

39 (10.7)

47 (11.2)

117 (10.6)

 Arthritis

  No

231 (72.2)

283 (77.3)

333 (79.3)

847 (76.6)

  Yes

89 (27.8)

83 (22.7)

87 (20.7)

259 (23.4)

 Stroke

  No

316 (29.0)

359 (98.1)

413 (98.3)

1088 (98.4)

  Yes

4 (1.3)

7 (1.9)

7 (1.7)

18 (1.6)

 Hypercholesterolemia

  No

220 (68.8)

219 (59.8)

265 (63.1)

704 (63.7)

  Yes

100 (31.2)

147 (40.2)

155 (36.9)

402 (36.3)

Anthropometry

 Body Mass Index, kg/m2

24.9 ± 4.3

25.0 ± 4.4

25.6 ± 4.4

25.2 ± 4.4

 BMI category

  Underweight

142 (45.7)

151 (41.8)

157 (38.0)

450 (41.5)*

  Normal

67 (21.5)

115 (31.9)

119 (28.8)

301 (27.7)

  Overweight

102 (32.8)

95 (26.3)

137 (33.2)

334 (30.8)

 Waist Hip Ratio

0.9 ± 0.1

0.9 ± 0.1

0.9 ± 0.1

0.9 ± 0.1

 Weight, kg

59.7 ± 11.9

62.1 ± 11.7

64.7 ± 12.5

62.4 ± 12.3***

 Height, cm

154.6 ± 8.1

157.6 ± 8.1

158.8 ± 8.8

157.2 ± 8.5***

 MUAC, cm

28.1 ± 3.3

28.7 ± 3.4

29.3 ± 3.6

28.7 ± 3.5***

 Waist Circumference, cm

88.1 ± 11.1

88.4 ± 10.7

90.1 ± 11.1

89.0 ± 11.0*

 Hip Circumference, cm

96.6 ± 9.1

97.5 ± 9.3

99.3 ± 9.0

97.9 ± 9.2***

 Calf Circumference, cm

33.1 ± 3.6

34.0 ± 3.5

35.0 ± 3.8

34.1 ± 3.8***

Cognitive

 Digit span

7.5 ± 2.6

8.0 ± 2.6

8.4 ± 2.5

8.0 ± 2.6***

 Best learning RAVLT

36.3 ± 10.5

38.1 ± 10.6

42.4 ± 10.8

39.2 ± 10.9***

 Digit symbol

4.5 ± 2.2

5.3 ± 2.6

7.0 ± 3.0

5.7 ± 2.8***

 MMSE

22.1 ± 5.3

23.6 ± 4.3

25.3 ± 3.7

23.8 ± 4.6***

 Immediate visual memory

39.7 ± 30.7

46.5 ± 33.9

60.6 ± 31.5

49.9 ± 33.2***

 Delayed visual memory

31.5 ± 33.0

40.2 ± 35.1

55.6 ± 36.3

43.6 ± 36.4***

Dietary Intake

 Protein, per  1000 kcal/day

43.8 ± 8.7

42.3 ± 8.2

41.4 ± 8.2

42.4 ± 8.4**

 Carbohydrate,per 1000 kcal/day

132.7 ± 21.2

136.7 ± 19.2

135.7 ± 20.4

135.2 ± 20.3

 Fat, per 1000 kcal/day

32.7 ± 8.4

31.6 ± 7.7

32.2 ± 7.4

32.2 ± 7.8

 SFA, per 1000 kcal/day

5.1 ± 3.3

5.1 ± 3.1

5.3 ± 3.1

5.1 ± 3.2

 Fibre, per 1000 kcal/day

2.5 ± 1.5

2.7 ± 1.8

3.0 ± 1.9

2.8 ± 1.8

 Sugar, per 1000 kcal/day

11.3 ± 8.8

13.5 ± 9.9

16.3 ± 11.4

14.0 ± 10.4

 Vitamin C, per 1000 kcal/day

76.2 ± 47.6

82.2 ± 59.6

76.2 ± 50.6

78.2 ± 53.0

 Vitamin E, per 1000 kcal/day

6.1 ± 26.9

7.4 ± 32.6

3.3 ± 3.5

5.5 ± 23.8

 Folate, per 1000 kcal/day

66.1 ± 44.6

72.1 ± 59.7

72.9 ± 44.1

70.7 ± 50.0

 Sodium, per 100 kcal/day

941.2 ± 711.7

863.5 ± 523

856.9 ± 461.3

883.5 ± 566.8

 Potassium, per 1000 kcal/day

915.6 ± 308.3

926.8 ± 317.3

944.6 ± 303.8

930.3 ± 309.6

 Calcium, per 1000 kcal/day

315.4 ± 137.8

333.9 ± 182.5

333.2 + 159.2

328.3 ± 161.7

Calorie restriction

 No

238 (76.5)

242 (68.0)

239 (58.4)

719 (66.8)***

 Yes

73 (23.5)

114 (32.0)

170 (41.6)

357 (33.2)

 Fresh fruits intake, (days/week)

3.5 ± 2.5

4.1 ± 2.5

4.8 ± 2.4

4.2 ± 2.5***

 Intake of salad or `ulam` (days/week)

6.0 ± 2.0

5.9 ± 2.1

6.2 ± 1.9

6.0 ± 2.0

Psychosocial

 Disability

5.6 ± 3.1

5.4 ± 2.9

5.2 ± 3.1

5.4 ± 3.0***

 Depression

3.2 ± 2.5

2.5 ± 2.3

2.3 ± 2.1

2.6 ± 2.3

 Loneliness

3.3 ± 1.1

3.2 ± 0.8

3.3 ± 1.0

3.3 ± 1.0

 Physical Fitness

 2 min step test, number

58.4 ± 25.6

62.0 ± 26.8

67.3 ± 25.9

63.0 ± 26.3***

 Grip strength, kg

22.0 ± 7.5

23.6 ± 7.6

25.0 ± 8.0

23.7 ± 7.8***

 Chair stand test, number

10.1 ± 3.1

10.5 ± 11.2

11.2 ± 3.1

10.6 ± 3.1***

 TUG, seconds

11.0 ± 2.9

10.2 ± 2.8

9.3 ± 2.5

10.0 ± 2.8***

 Chair sit and reach, cm

4.9 ± 12.8

3.6 ± 11.6

3.4 ± 11.2

3.9 ± 11.8

 Back scratch test, cm

15.7 ± 13.1

14.5 ± 12.3

12.7 ± 13.4

14.2 ± 13.0**

  1. Abbreviation: TUG Timed up and go test, MUAC Mid upper arm circumference, MMSE Mini Mental State Examination, RAVLT Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test
  2. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01;***p < 0.001