|
Age, years
|
70.1 ± 6.1
|
68.5 ± 5.7
|
67.4 ± 5.7
|
68.6 ± 5.9***
|
|
Education years
|
3.3 ± 3.4
|
5.6 ± 3.7
|
8.3 ± 4.3
|
6.0 ± 4.4***
|
|
Gender
|
|
Women
|
209 (65.3)
|
193 (52.7)
|
198 (47.1)
|
600 (54.2)***
|
|
Men
|
111 (34.7)
|
173 (47.3)
|
222 (52.9)
|
506 (45.8)
|
|
Ethnicity
|
|
Malay
|
96 (30.0)
|
129 (35.2)
|
200 (47.6)
|
425 (38.4)***
|
|
Chinese
|
208 (65.0)
|
206 (56.3)
|
174 (41.4)
|
588 (53.2)
|
|
India & Others
|
16 (5.0)
|
31 (8.5)
|
46 (11.0)
|
93 (8.4)
|
|
Marital status
|
|
Single
|
11 (3.4)
|
9 (2.5)
|
6 (1.4)
|
26 (2.4)***
|
|
Married
|
204 (63.8)
|
264 (72.1)
|
333 (79.3)
|
801 (72.4)
|
|
Divorced
|
105 (32.8)
|
93 (25.4)
|
81 (19.3)
|
279 (25.2)
|
|
Smoking
|
|
Non-smoker
|
280 (87.5)
|
308 (84.2)
|
384 (91.4)
|
972 (87.9)**
|
|
Smoker
|
40 (12.5)
|
58 (15.8)
|
36 (8.6)
|
134 (12.1)
|
|
Living Status
|
|
With others
|
266 (83.1)
|
324 (88.5)
|
401 (95.5)
|
991 (89.6)***
|
|
Alone
|
54 (16.9)
|
42 (11.5)
|
19 (4.5)
|
115 (10.4)
|
|
Medical History
|
|
Diabetes
|
|
No
|
239 (74.7)
|
250 (68.3)
|
310 (73.8)
|
799 (72.2)
|
|
Yes
|
81 (25.3)
|
116 (31.7)
|
110 (26.2)
|
307 (27.8)
|
|
Hypertension
|
|
No
|
155 (48.4)
|
171 (46.7)
|
211 (50.2)
|
537 (48.6)
|
|
Yes
|
165 (51.6)
|
195 (53.3)
|
209 (49.8)
|
569 (51.4)
|
|
Vision or hearing
|
|
No
|
287 (89.7)
|
330 (90.2)
|
389 (92.6)
|
1006 (91.0)
|
|
Yes
|
33 (10.3)
|
36 (9.8)
|
31 (7.4)
|
100 (9.0)
|
|
Urinary incontinence
|
|
No
|
298 (93.1)
|
342 (93.4)
|
386 (91.9)
|
1026 (92.8)
|
|
Yes
|
22 (6.9)
|
24 (6.6)
|
34 (8.1)
|
80 (7.2)
|
|
Constipation
|
|
No
|
308 (96.3)
|
348 (95.1)
|
404 (96.2)
|
1060 (95.8)
|
|
Yes
|
12 (3.7)
|
18 (4.9)
|
16 (3.8)
|
46 (4.2)
|
|
Asthma
|
|
No
|
292 (91.3)
|
350 (95.6)
|
400 (95.2)
|
1042 (94.2)*
|
|
Yes
|
28 (8.8)
|
16 (4.4)
|
20 (4.8)
|
64 (5.8)
|
|
Heart disease
|
|
No
|
289 (90.3)
|
327 (89.3)
|
373 (88.8)
|
989 (89.4)
|
|
Yes
|
31 (9.7)
|
39 (10.7)
|
47 (11.2)
|
117 (10.6)
|
|
Arthritis
|
|
No
|
231 (72.2)
|
283 (77.3)
|
333 (79.3)
|
847 (76.6)
|
|
Yes
|
89 (27.8)
|
83 (22.7)
|
87 (20.7)
|
259 (23.4)
|
|
Stroke
|
|
No
|
316 (29.0)
|
359 (98.1)
|
413 (98.3)
|
1088 (98.4)
|
|
Yes
|
4 (1.3)
|
7 (1.9)
|
7 (1.7)
|
18 (1.6)
|
|
Hypercholesterolemia
|
|
No
|
220 (68.8)
|
219 (59.8)
|
265 (63.1)
|
704 (63.7)
|
|
Yes
|
100 (31.2)
|
147 (40.2)
|
155 (36.9)
|
402 (36.3)
|
|
Anthropometry
|
|
Body Mass Index, kg/m2
|
24.9 ± 4.3
|
25.0 ± 4.4
|
25.6 ± 4.4
|
25.2 ± 4.4
|
|
BMI category
|
|
Underweight
|
142 (45.7)
|
151 (41.8)
|
157 (38.0)
|
450 (41.5)*
|
|
Normal
|
67 (21.5)
|
115 (31.9)
|
119 (28.8)
|
301 (27.7)
|
|
Overweight
|
102 (32.8)
|
95 (26.3)
|
137 (33.2)
|
334 (30.8)
|
|
Waist Hip Ratio
|
0.9 ± 0.1
|
0.9 ± 0.1
|
0.9 ± 0.1
|
0.9 ± 0.1
|
|
Weight, kg
|
59.7 ± 11.9
|
62.1 ± 11.7
|
64.7 ± 12.5
|
62.4 ± 12.3***
|
|
Height, cm
|
154.6 ± 8.1
|
157.6 ± 8.1
|
158.8 ± 8.8
|
157.2 ± 8.5***
|
|
MUAC, cm
|
28.1 ± 3.3
|
28.7 ± 3.4
|
29.3 ± 3.6
|
28.7 ± 3.5***
|
|
Waist Circumference, cm
|
88.1 ± 11.1
|
88.4 ± 10.7
|
90.1 ± 11.1
|
89.0 ± 11.0*
|
|
Hip Circumference, cm
|
96.6 ± 9.1
|
97.5 ± 9.3
|
99.3 ± 9.0
|
97.9 ± 9.2***
|
|
Calf Circumference, cm
|
33.1 ± 3.6
|
34.0 ± 3.5
|
35.0 ± 3.8
|
34.1 ± 3.8***
|
|
Cognitive
|
|
Digit span
|
7.5 ± 2.6
|
8.0 ± 2.6
|
8.4 ± 2.5
|
8.0 ± 2.6***
|
|
Best learning RAVLT
|
36.3 ± 10.5
|
38.1 ± 10.6
|
42.4 ± 10.8
|
39.2 ± 10.9***
|
|
Digit symbol
|
4.5 ± 2.2
|
5.3 ± 2.6
|
7.0 ± 3.0
|
5.7 ± 2.8***
|
|
MMSE
|
22.1 ± 5.3
|
23.6 ± 4.3
|
25.3 ± 3.7
|
23.8 ± 4.6***
|
|
Immediate visual memory
|
39.7 ± 30.7
|
46.5 ± 33.9
|
60.6 ± 31.5
|
49.9 ± 33.2***
|
|
Delayed visual memory
|
31.5 ± 33.0
|
40.2 ± 35.1
|
55.6 ± 36.3
|
43.6 ± 36.4***
|
|
Dietary Intake
|
|
Protein, per 1000 kcal/day
|
43.8 ± 8.7
|
42.3 ± 8.2
|
41.4 ± 8.2
|
42.4 ± 8.4**
|
|
Carbohydrate,per 1000 kcal/day
|
132.7 ± 21.2
|
136.7 ± 19.2
|
135.7 ± 20.4
|
135.2 ± 20.3
|
|
Fat, per 1000 kcal/day
|
32.7 ± 8.4
|
31.6 ± 7.7
|
32.2 ± 7.4
|
32.2 ± 7.8
|
|
SFA, per 1000 kcal/day
|
5.1 ± 3.3
|
5.1 ± 3.1
|
5.3 ± 3.1
|
5.1 ± 3.2
|
|
Fibre, per 1000 kcal/day
|
2.5 ± 1.5
|
2.7 ± 1.8
|
3.0 ± 1.9
|
2.8 ± 1.8
|
|
Sugar, per 1000 kcal/day
|
11.3 ± 8.8
|
13.5 ± 9.9
|
16.3 ± 11.4
|
14.0 ± 10.4
|
|
Vitamin C, per 1000 kcal/day
|
76.2 ± 47.6
|
82.2 ± 59.6
|
76.2 ± 50.6
|
78.2 ± 53.0
|
|
Vitamin E, per 1000 kcal/day
|
6.1 ± 26.9
|
7.4 ± 32.6
|
3.3 ± 3.5
|
5.5 ± 23.8
|
|
Folate, per 1000 kcal/day
|
66.1 ± 44.6
|
72.1 ± 59.7
|
72.9 ± 44.1
|
70.7 ± 50.0
|
|
Sodium, per 100 kcal/day
|
941.2 ± 711.7
|
863.5 ± 523
|
856.9 ± 461.3
|
883.5 ± 566.8
|
|
Potassium, per 1000 kcal/day
|
915.6 ± 308.3
|
926.8 ± 317.3
|
944.6 ± 303.8
|
930.3 ± 309.6
|
|
Calcium, per 1000 kcal/day
|
315.4 ± 137.8
|
333.9 ± 182.5
|
333.2 + 159.2
|
328.3 ± 161.7
|
|
Calorie restriction
|
|
No
|
238 (76.5)
|
242 (68.0)
|
239 (58.4)
|
719 (66.8)***
|
|
Yes
|
73 (23.5)
|
114 (32.0)
|
170 (41.6)
|
357 (33.2)
|
|
Fresh fruits intake, (days/week)
|
3.5 ± 2.5
|
4.1 ± 2.5
|
4.8 ± 2.4
|
4.2 ± 2.5***
|
|
Intake of salad or `ulam` (days/week)
|
6.0 ± 2.0
|
5.9 ± 2.1
|
6.2 ± 1.9
|
6.0 ± 2.0
|
|
Psychosocial
|
|
Disability
|
5.6 ± 3.1
|
5.4 ± 2.9
|
5.2 ± 3.1
|
5.4 ± 3.0***
|
|
Depression
|
3.2 ± 2.5
|
2.5 ± 2.3
|
2.3 ± 2.1
|
2.6 ± 2.3
|
|
Loneliness
|
3.3 ± 1.1
|
3.2 ± 0.8
|
3.3 ± 1.0
|
3.3 ± 1.0
|
|
Physical Fitness
|
|
2 min step test, number
|
58.4 ± 25.6
|
62.0 ± 26.8
|
67.3 ± 25.9
|
63.0 ± 26.3***
|
|
Grip strength, kg
|
22.0 ± 7.5
|
23.6 ± 7.6
|
25.0 ± 8.0
|
23.7 ± 7.8***
|
|
Chair stand test, number
|
10.1 ± 3.1
|
10.5 ± 11.2
|
11.2 ± 3.1
|
10.6 ± 3.1***
|
|
TUG, seconds
|
11.0 ± 2.9
|
10.2 ± 2.8
|
9.3 ± 2.5
|
10.0 ± 2.8***
|
|
Chair sit and reach, cm
|
4.9 ± 12.8
|
3.6 ± 11.6
|
3.4 ± 11.2
|
3.9 ± 11.8
|
|
Back scratch test, cm
|
15.7 ± 13.1
|
14.5 ± 12.3
|
12.7 ± 13.4
|
14.2 ± 13.0**
|
