| Author, year | Cardio metabolic health outcome | Association | P-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Energy and nutrients | ||||
Energy intake | Zalilah et al. (2006) [38] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE) ♂ 2198±92 vs. 2133±77 vs. 2262±84 ♀ 1916±74 vs. 1903±57 vs. 2138±57 | p = NS p < 0.05 |
Rezali et al. (2012) [42] | BMI (z-score) | Beta=0.001 | p < 0.01 | |
Majid et al.(2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 1673.6 (1642.2–1705.0) vs. 1571.9 (1530.1–1613.7) vs. 1742 (1657.7–1826.5) vs. 1987 (1825.8–2149.3) | P < 0.001 | |
Pon et al. (2004) [39] | Body weight status | OW vs. NW (Mean ± SD) 1518 ± 572 vs. 1636 ± 528 | p=NS | |
Carbohydrates | Rezali et al. (2012) [42] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD) 198±69 vs. 197±64 vs. 211±65 | p=NS |
Zalilah et al. (2006) [38] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE) ♂ 281±2 vs. 271±10 vs. 285±11 ♀ 247±10 vs. 252±8 vs. 272±8 | p=NS p<0.05 | |
Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 231.2 (226.3–236.1) vs. 218.5 (211.9–225.2) vs. 235.4 (224.1–246.8) vs. 269.7 (246.7–292.7) | p<0.001 | |
Protein | Rezali et al. (2012) [42] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD) 60±24 vs. 62±19 vs. 67±20 | p = NS |
Zalilah et al. (2006) [38] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE) ♂ 89±6 vs. 80±5 vs. 86±5 ♀ 72±3 vs. 70±2 vs. 80±3 | p =NS p<0.05 | |
Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese mean (95% CI) 62.4 (60.9–63.8) vs. 56.9 (55.1–58.7) vs. 64.2 (60.4–67.9) vs.(62.5–78.5) vs. 70.5 ( 62.5–78.5) | p < 0.001 | |
Fat | Rezali et al. (2012) [42] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD) 61 ± 23 vs. 66 ± 22 vs. 72 ± 22 | NS |
Zalilah et al. (2006) [38] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE) ♂ 80 ± 4 vs. 81±3 vs. 86 ± 4 ♀ 70 ± 4 vs. 69 ± 3 vs. 81± 37 | p =NS p<0.05 | |
Majid et al.(2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 55.7 (54.4–57.0) vs. 52.0 (50.1–54.0) vs. 60.6 (56.7–64.5) vs. 70.3 (63.4–77.0) | p < 0.001 | |
Cholesterol | Majid et al.(2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (mean (95% CI) 225.2 (216.5–233.8) vs. 212.1 (200.8–223.4) vs. 234.7 (209.9–259.5) vs. 262.5 (209.2–315.8) | p = NS |
Saturated fatty acid | Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (mean (95% CI) 10.9 (10.4–11.3) vs. 10.4 (9.8–11.0) vs. 11.9 (10.2–13.6) vs.13.1 (11.6–14.6) | p = NS |
Unsaturated fatty acid | Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | Unsaturated fatty acid NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 8.4 (8.1–8.8) vs.7.8 (7.4–8.2) vs. 8.3 (7.6–9.0) vs.9.9 (8.1–11.7) | p = NS |
Polyunsaturated fatty acid NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 6.1 (5.9–6.4) vs. 5.7 (5.4–6.0) vs. 6.3 (5.8–6.9) vs. 7.8 (6.3–9.3) | p = NS | |||
Saturated (palm olein) vs. Polyunsaturated (soybean oil) cooking oils | Marzuki et al.(1991) [46] | Triglycerides (mmol/L) | Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE) 0.85 ± 0.04 vs. 0.74 ± 0.03 vs.1.09 ± 0.06 | p < 0.001 |
Total chlesterol (mmol/L) | Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE) 3.89±0.09 vs. 3.86 ± 0.08 vs.3.95 ± 0.09 | p = NS | ||
HDL cholesterol (mmol/ L) | Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE) 1.39± 0.03 vs. 1.33± 0.03 vs. 1.32± 0.03 | p = NS | ||
LDL cholesterol (mmol/ L) | Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE) 2.37±0.09 vs. 2.37 ±0.08 vs. 2.41± 0.09 | p = NS | ||
Sugar | Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 33.8 (32.3–35.3) vs. 33.6 (31.6–35.6) vs 35.3 (30.8–39.9) vs. 48.9 (39.0–58.7) | p < 0.001 |
Fiber | Majid et al. (2016) [30] | BMI (kg/m2) | NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI) 2.9 (2.8–3.1) vs.2.8 (2.6–2.9) vs. 3.0 (2.7–3.4) vs4.1 (2.9–5.4) | p = NS |
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Normal vs. WC vs. AO (%) Daily: 35.6 vs. 38.3 Weekly: 38 vs. 34.0 Rarely: 26.4 vs. 27.7 | p = 0.479 | |
Foods | ||||
Sugar sweetened beverages | Loh et al. (2017) [33] | WC (cm) | r2(95% CI) r2= 0.67 (69.1–72.5) | p < 0.001 |
Triglycerides (mmol/ L) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.1 (0.13–1.27) | p< 0.01 | ||
HDL cholesterol (mmol/ L) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.19 (0.99–2.29) | p < 0.001 | ||
LDL cholesterol (mmol/ L) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.12 (2.04–4.31) | p < 0.001 | ||
Systolic BP (mmHg) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.31 (100–107) | p < 0.001 | ||
Diastolic BP (mmHg) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.16 (59–64) | p < 0.001 | ||
Fasting blood glucose (mmol L) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.03 (4.51–5.36) | p < 0.001 | ||
Insulin (uUmL) | r2(95% CI) r2=0.42 (12.54–16.21) | p < 0.001 | ||
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Higher SSB frequency (OR=0.974, 95% CI 0.891, 1.064) | p = 0.557 | |
Cheah et al. (2011) [41] | BMI (z-score) | NW vs. OW (%) Every day: 4 vs. 12 Seldom: 40 vs. 52 | p = 0.06 | |
Legumes | Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Higher legume frequency (OR=1.102 95% CI 0.934, 1.105) | p = 0.717 |
Vegetarian diet | Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Vegetarians vs. non-vegetarians (OR=2.512, 95% CI 0.293, 21.526) | p = 0.401 |
Eating frequency | ||||
Meal frequency | Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Irregular vs. regular meals (OR=3.193, 95% CI 1.043, 9.774) | p = 0.042 |
Pon et al. (2004) [39] | Body weight status | Regular Mealtime NW vs. OW (%) Yes: 32 vs. 40 Sometimes: 42 vs. 34 No: 26 vs. 26 | p = NS | |
Boon et al. (2012) [43] | BMI (kg/m2) | 3M+3S vs. 3M+2S vs. 3M+1S vs. 3M vs. <2M,2,3 S vs. <2M+0,1S (Mean ± SD) 19 ± 3.3 vs. 20.3 ± 4.6 vs. 19.5± 4.3 vs. 18.5 ± 3.2 vs. 18.9 ±3.7 vs. 20.5 ± 3.6 | p > 0.05 | |
Body weight status | 3M+3S vs. 3M+2S vs. 3M+1S vs. 3M vs. <2M,2,3 S vs. <2M+0,1S (%) UW : 16 vs.16.7 vs. 12.1 vs.25 vs. 13.6 vs. 8.3 NW 72 vs. 52.8 vs.69.7 vs.62.5 vs.81.8 vs.70.8 OW 8 vs. 22.2 vs. 12.1 vs. 12.5 vs. 0 vs. 20.8 Obese 4 vs. 8.3 vs. 6.1 vs. 0. 4.5 vs. 0 | p > 0.05 | ||
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Not daily vs. daily dinner (OR=0.516, 95% CI 0.179-1.488) | p = 0.221 | |
Nurul-Fadhilah et al.(2013) [34] | BMI (z-score) | Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE) ♂- 0.19 ± 0.15 vs. 0.40 ± 0.19 ♀ -0.39 ± 0.17 vs. 0.21 ± 0.18 | p = 0.021 p = 0.017 | |
WC (cm) | Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE) ♂ 66.3 ± 1.3 vs. 70.6 ±1.6 ♀ 62.8 ± 1.2 vs. 67.6 ± 1.3 | p = 0.006 p = 0.008 | ||
Body weight (Kg) | Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE) ♂50.0 ± 1.5 vs. 56.4 ± 1.9 ♀46.3 ± 1.5 vs. 51.0 ± 1.6 | p = 0.010 p = 0.039 | ||
Body Fat (%) | Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE) ♂ 15.1±1.2 vs. 20.4±1.5 ♀ 30.4±0.9 vs. 33.0±1.0 | p = 0.006 p = 0.045 | ||
Meal frequency | Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Normal WC vs. AO (%) Breakfast Daily: 48.9 vs. 44.1 Not daily : 51.1 vs. 55.9 | p = 0.380 |
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Normal WC vs. AO (%) Lunch Daily : 84.1 vs. 83 Not daily: 15.9 vs. 17.0 | p = 0.771 | |
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Not daily vs. daily dinner (OR=0.516, 95% CI: 0.179, 1.488) | p = 0.221 | |
Pon et al. (2004) [39] | Body weight status | NW vs. OW (%) Dinner daily Yes: 12 vs.. 10 Dinner sometimes : 42 vs. 52 No: 46 vs. 38 | p = NS | |
Pon et al. (2004) [39] | Body weight status | Skipping Daily Meals NW vs. OW (%) Yes: 40 vs. 16 Sometimes: 48 vs. 54 No: 12 vs. 30 | p < 0.05 | |
Chin & Nasir (2009) [35] | Body weight status | UW vs. NW vs. OW (%) Never skip 45.8 vs. 37.8 vs. 25.0 Skipped at least one meal: 50 vs. , 53.1 vs. 51.3 Skipped all 3 meals daily: 4.2 vs. 9.1 vs.23.7 | p < 0.05 | |
Snacks frequency | Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Snacking Between Meals Normal WC vs. AO (%) Daily: 28.8 vs. 22.3 Weekly: 40.8 vs. 46.8 Rarely: 30.3 vs. 30.9 | p = 0.371 |
Cheah et al. (2011) [41] | BMI (z-score) | Cereal-snacking frequency NW vs. OW (% respondents) Everyday: 27 vs. 32 Seldom: 40 vs. 20 | p = 0.146 | |
Cheah et al. (2011) [41] | BMI (z-score) | Junk food- snacking frequency NW vs. OW (% respondents) Everyday: 12 vs. 4 Seldom: 32 vs. 44 | p = 0.212 | |
Cheah et al. (2011) [41] | BMI (z-score) | NW vs. OW (% respondents) Everyday: 8 vs. 0 Seldom: 39 vs. 59 | p = 0.294 | |
Chew et al. (2016) [40] | Abdominal obesity | Fast food-snacking frequency Normal WC vs. AO (%) Daily: 4.6 vs. 1.1 Weekly: 44.3 vs. 41.5 Rarely: 51.1 vs. 57.4 | p = 0.193 | |
Pon et al. (2004) [39] | Body weight status | Snacking Between Meals NW vs. OW (%) Yes: 58 vs. 64 No: 42 vs .36 | p = NS | |
Frequency of family meals away from home | Cynthia et al.2013 [44] | Body weight status | 0-2 times vs. 3-6 times vs.> 7 times (Mean ± SE) 50.09 ± 0.92 vs.47.26 ± 1.07 vs.49.94 ± 1.37 | p = 0.881 |
BMI (kgm2) | 0-2 times vs. 3-6 times vs.> 7 times (Mean ± SE) 19.75 ± 0.30 vs. 18.80 ± 0.35 vs. 19.84 ± 0.45 | p = 0.933 |