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Table 2 Summary of association between health-related determinants of diet and cardio metabolic health outcome

From: Dietary and physical activity patterns related to cardio-metabolic health among Malaysian adolescents: a systematic review

 

Author, year

Cardio metabolic health outcome

Association

P-value

Energy and nutrients

Energy intake

Zalilah et al. (2006) [38]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE)

♂ 2198±92 vs. 2133±77 vs. 2262±84

♀ 1916±74 vs. 1903±57 vs. 2138±57

p = NS

p < 0.05

Rezali et al. (2012) [42]

BMI (z-score)

Beta=0.001

p < 0.01

Majid et al.(2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

1673.6 (1642.2–1705.0) vs. 1571.9 (1530.1–1613.7) vs. 1742 (1657.7–1826.5) vs. 1987 (1825.8–2149.3)

P < 0.001

Pon et al. (2004) [39]

Body weight status

OW vs. NW (Mean ± SD)

1518 ± 572 vs. 1636 ± 528

p=NS

Carbohydrates

Rezali et al. (2012) [42]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD)

198±69 vs. 197±64 vs. 211±65

p=NS

Zalilah et al. (2006) [38]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE)

♂ 281±2 vs. 271±10 vs. 285±11

♀ 247±10 vs. 252±8 vs. 272±8

p=NS

p<0.05

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

231.2 (226.3–236.1) vs. 218.5 (211.9–225.2) vs. 235.4 (224.1–246.8) vs. 269.7 (246.7–292.7)

p<0.001

Protein

Rezali et al. (2012) [42]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD)

60±24 vs. 62±19 vs. 67±20

p = NS

Zalilah et al. (2006) [38]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE)

♂ 89±6 vs. 80±5 vs. 86±5

♀ 72±3 vs. 70±2 vs. 80±3

p =NS

p<0.05

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese mean (95% CI)

62.4 (60.9–63.8) vs. 56.9 (55.1–58.7) vs. 64.2 (60.4–67.9) vs.(62.5–78.5) vs. 70.5 ( 62.5–78.5)

p < 0.001

Fat

Rezali et al. (2012) [42]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SD)

61 ± 23 vs. 66 ± 22 vs. 72 ± 22

NS

Zalilah et al. (2006) [38]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (Mean ± SE)

♂ 80 ± 4 vs. 81±3 vs. 86 ± 4

♀ 70 ± 4 vs. 69 ± 3 vs. 81± 37

p =NS

p<0.05

Majid et al.(2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

55.7 (54.4–57.0) vs. 52.0 (50.1–54.0) vs. 60.6 (56.7–64.5) vs. 70.3 (63.4–77.0)

p < 0.001

Cholesterol

Majid et al.(2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (mean (95% CI)

225.2 (216.5–233.8) vs. 212.1 (200.8–223.4) vs. 234.7 (209.9–259.5) vs. 262.5 (209.2–315.8)

p = NS

Saturated fatty acid

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (mean (95% CI)

10.9 (10.4–11.3) vs. 10.4 (9.8–11.0) vs. 11.9 (10.2–13.6) vs.13.1 (11.6–14.6)

p = NS

Unsaturated fatty acid

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

Unsaturated fatty acid

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

8.4 (8.1–8.8) vs.7.8 (7.4–8.2) vs. 8.3 (7.6–9.0) vs.9.9 (8.1–11.7)

p = NS

Polyunsaturated fatty acid

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

6.1 (5.9–6.4) vs. 5.7 (5.4–6.0) vs. 6.3 (5.8–6.9) vs. 7.8 (6.3–9.3)

p = NS

Saturated (palm olein) vs. Polyunsaturated (soybean oil) cooking oils

Marzuki et al.(1991) [46]

Triglycerides (mmol/L)

Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE)

0.85 ± 0.04 vs. 0.74 ± 0.03 vs.1.09 ± 0.06

p < 0.001

Total chlesterol (mmol/L)

Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE)

3.89±0.09 vs. 3.86 ± 0.08 vs.3.95 ± 0.09

p = NS

HDL cholesterol (mmol/ L)

Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE)

1.39± 0.03 vs. 1.33± 0.03 vs. 1.32± 0.03

p = NS

LDL cholesterol (mmol/ L)

Baseline vs. Palm oil diet vs. Soy bean diet (Mean ± SE)

2.37±0.09 vs. 2.37 ±0.08 vs. 2.41± 0.09

p = NS

Sugar

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

33.8 (32.3–35.3) vs. 33.6 (31.6–35.6) vs 35.3 (30.8–39.9) vs. 48.9 (39.0–58.7)

p < 0.001

Fiber

Majid et al. (2016) [30]

BMI (kg/m2)

NW vs. UW vs. OW vs. Obese (Mean (95% CI)

2.9 (2.8–3.1) vs.2.8 (2.6–2.9) vs. 3.0 (2.7–3.4) vs4.1 (2.9–5.4)

p = NS

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Normal vs. WC vs. AO (%)

Daily: 35.6 vs. 38.3

Weekly: 38 vs. 34.0

Rarely: 26.4 vs. 27.7

p = 0.479

Foods

Sugar sweetened beverages

Loh et al. (2017) [33]

WC (cm)

r2(95% CI)

r2= 0.67 (69.1–72.5)

p < 0.001

Triglycerides

(mmol/ L)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.1 (0.13–1.27)

p< 0.01

HDL cholesterol

(mmol/ L)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.19 (0.99–2.29)

p < 0.001

LDL cholesterol

(mmol/ L)

r2(95% CI) r2=0.12 (2.04–4.31)

p < 0.001

Systolic BP (mmHg)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.31 (100–107)

p < 0.001

Diastolic BP (mmHg)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.16 (59–64)

p < 0.001

Fasting blood glucose (mmol L)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.03 (4.51–5.36)

p < 0.001

Insulin (uUmL)

r2(95% CI)

r2=0.42 (12.54–16.21)

p < 0.001

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Higher SSB frequency

(OR=0.974, 95% CI 0.891, 1.064)

p = 0.557

Cheah et al. (2011) [41]

BMI (z-score)

NW vs. OW (%)

Every day: 4 vs. 12

Seldom: 40 vs. 52

p = 0.06

Legumes

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Higher legume frequency

(OR=1.102 95% CI 0.934, 1.105)

p = 0.717

Vegetarian diet

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Vegetarians vs. non-vegetarians

(OR=2.512, 95% CI 0.293, 21.526)

p = 0.401

Eating frequency

Meal frequency

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Irregular vs. regular meals

(OR=3.193, 95% CI 1.043, 9.774)

p = 0.042

Pon et al. (2004) [39]

Body weight status

Regular Mealtime

NW vs. OW (%)

Yes: 32 vs. 40

Sometimes: 42 vs. 34

No: 26 vs. 26

p = NS

Boon et al. (2012) [43]

BMI (kg/m2)

3M+3S vs. 3M+2S vs. 3M+1S vs. 3M vs. <2M,2,3 S vs. <2M+0,1S (Mean ± SD)

19 ± 3.3 vs. 20.3 ± 4.6 vs. 19.5± 4.3 vs. 18.5 ± 3.2 vs. 18.9 ±3.7 vs. 20.5 ± 3.6

p > 0.05

Body weight status

3M+3S vs. 3M+2S vs. 3M+1S vs. 3M vs. <2M,2,3 S vs. <2M+0,1S (%)

UW : 16 vs.16.7 vs. 12.1 vs.25 vs. 13.6 vs. 8.3 NW 72 vs. 52.8 vs.69.7 vs.62.5 vs.81.8 vs.70.8 OW 8 vs. 22.2 vs. 12.1 vs. 12.5 vs. 0 vs. 20.8 Obese 4 vs. 8.3 vs. 6.1 vs. 0. 4.5 vs. 0

p > 0.05

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Not daily vs. daily dinner (OR=0.516, 95% CI 0.179-1.488)

p = 0.221

Nurul-Fadhilah et al.(2013) [34]

BMI (z-score)

Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE)

♂- 0.19 ± 0.15 vs. 0.40 ± 0.19

♀ -0.39 ± 0.17 vs. 0.21 ± 0.18

p = 0.021

p = 0.017

WC (cm)

Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE)

♂ 66.3 ± 1.3 vs. 70.6 ±1.6

♀ 62.8 ± 1.2 vs. 67.6 ± 1.3

p = 0.006

p = 0.008

Body weight (Kg)

Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE)

♂50.0 ± 1.5 vs. 56.4 ± 1.9 ♀46.3 ± 1.5 vs. 51.0 ± 1.6

p = 0.010

p = 0.039

Body Fat (%)

Breakfast ≥5 times/week vs. <5 times/week (Mean ± SE)

♂ 15.1±1.2 vs. 20.4±1.5

♀ 30.4±0.9 vs. 33.0±1.0

p = 0.006

p = 0.045

Meal frequency

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Normal WC vs. AO (%)

Breakfast Daily: 48.9 vs. 44.1 Not daily : 51.1 vs. 55.9

p = 0.380

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Normal WC vs. AO (%)

Lunch Daily : 84.1 vs. 83 Not daily: 15.9 vs. 17.0

p = 0.771

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Not daily vs. daily dinner

(OR=0.516, 95% CI: 0.179, 1.488)

p = 0.221

Pon et al. (2004) [39]

Body weight status

NW vs. OW (%)

Dinner daily Yes: 12 vs.. 10

Dinner sometimes : 42 vs. 52

No: 46 vs. 38

p = NS

Pon et al. (2004) [39]

Body weight status

Skipping Daily Meals

NW vs. OW (%)

Yes: 40 vs. 16

Sometimes: 48 vs. 54

No: 12 vs. 30

p < 0.05

Chin & Nasir (2009) [35]

Body weight status

UW vs. NW vs. OW (%)

Never skip 45.8 vs. 37.8 vs. 25.0 Skipped at least one meal: 50 vs. , 53.1 vs. 51.3 Skipped all 3 meals daily: 4.2 vs. 9.1 vs.23.7

p < 0.05

Snacks frequency

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Snacking Between Meals

Normal WC vs. AO (%)

Daily: 28.8 vs. 22.3 Weekly: 40.8 vs. 46.8 Rarely: 30.3 vs. 30.9

p = 0.371

Cheah et al. (2011) [41]

BMI (z-score)

Cereal-snacking frequency

NW vs. OW (% respondents)

Everyday: 27 vs. 32

Seldom: 40 vs. 20

p = 0.146

Cheah et al. (2011) [41]

BMI (z-score)

Junk food- snacking frequency

NW vs. OW (% respondents)

Everyday: 12 vs. 4

Seldom: 32 vs. 44

p = 0.212

Cheah et al. (2011) [41]

BMI (z-score)

NW vs. OW (% respondents)

Everyday: 8 vs. 0

Seldom: 39 vs. 59

p = 0.294

Chew et al. (2016) [40]

Abdominal obesity

Fast food-snacking frequency

Normal WC vs. AO (%)

Daily: 4.6 vs. 1.1

Weekly: 44.3 vs. 41.5

Rarely: 51.1 vs. 57.4

p = 0.193

Pon et al. (2004) [39]

Body weight status

Snacking Between Meals

NW vs. OW (%)

Yes: 58 vs. 64

No: 42 vs .36

p = NS

Frequency of family meals away from home

Cynthia et al.2013 [44]

Body weight status

0-2 times vs. 3-6 times vs.> 7 times (Mean ± SE)

50.09 ± 0.92 vs.47.26 ± 1.07 vs.49.94 ± 1.37

p = 0.881

BMI (kgm2)

0-2 times vs. 3-6 times vs.> 7 times (Mean ± SE)

19.75 ± 0.30 vs. 18.80 ± 0.35 vs. 19.84 ± 0.45

p = 0.933

  1. Abbreviations: ♂ Male, ♀ Female, UW Underweight, NW Normal weight, OW Overweight, BMI Body Mass Index, AO abdominal obesity, WC waist circumference, SE standard error, (3M+3S) 3 meals + 3 snacks, (3M+2S) 3 meals + 2 snacks, (3M+1S) 3 meals + one snack, (3M) 3 meals, (≤2M±2,3S) meal skippers consumed snacks frequently, (≤2M±0,1S) meal skippers consumed snacks only one time or never, NS not statistically significant (p> 0.05), SE standard error