Skip to main content

Table 2 Univariate and multivariable analyses of markers of indoor air pollution by selected sociodemographic, geographic and ecology variables: 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (N = 11,012)

From: Geographic and socio-economic variation in markers of indoor air pollution in Nepal: evidence from nationally-representative data

Variable

Clean Fuel Use (n = 3282, 34%)

Cooking in separate kitchen (n = 4229, 55.5%)

No Indoor Smoking (n = 5992, 56.9%)

No Indoor Air Pollution (n = 1705, 17.0%)

Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)

a Sex of house hold head

 Male

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Female

1.06 (0.93, 1.20)

1.85 (1.52, 2.26)

0.96 (0.85, 1.10)

1.54 (1.32, 1.79)

1.53 (1.38, 1.68)

1.64 (1.47, 1.84)

1.04 (0.90, 1.21)

2.18 (1.79, 2.65)

b Age of household head

 15–24

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 25–34

0.64 (0.47, 0.85)

0.58 (0.42, 0.81)

1.97 (1.45, 2.67)

2.26 (1.65, 3.07)

0.78 (0.59, 1.03)

0.93 (0.71, 1.23)

1.25 (0.94, 1.67)

1.59 (1.07, 2.37)

 35–44

0.49 (0.36, 0.66)

0.44 (0.31, 0.62)

2.98 (2.16, 4.11)

3.78 (2.74, 5.21)

0.66 (0.50, 0.87)

0.88 (0.67, 1.15)

1.37 (1.02, 1.84)

2.12 (1.44, 3.12)

 45–54

0.45 (0.33, 0.62)

0.45 (0.32, 0.63)

3.51 (2.57, 4.79)

5.03 (3.68, 6.87)

0.41 (0.31, 0.54)

0.57 (0.42, 0.77)

1.25 (0.91, 1.70)

2.10 (1.33, 3.32)

 55–64

0.33 (0.24, 0.46)

0.42 (0.29, 0.62)

2.79 (1.99, 3.91)

4.85 (3.43, 6.86)

0.38 (0.28, 0.50)

0.61 (0.45, 0.82)

0.99 (0.69, 1.44)

2.37 (1.48, 3.80)

  > =65

0.32 (0.22, 0.45)

0.55 (0.36, 0.83)

2.87 (2.02, 4.08)

5.91 (4.10, 8.52)

0.40 (0.30, 0.54)

0.70 (0.52, 0.95)

1.04 (0.71, 1.54)

3.50 (2.13, 5.76)

c Education level of household head

 No education, preschool

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Primary (Grade 1–5)

1.96 (1.69, 2.28)

2.08 (1.69, 2.55)

1.43 (1.23, 1.67)

1.81 (1.51, 2.17)

0.99 (0.88, 1.12)

0.96 (0.85, 1.09)

1.68 (1.39, 2.03)

1.80 (1.42, 2.28)

 Secondary (Grade 5–10)

4.71 (4.06, 5.46)

3.01 (2.35, 3.86)

2.10 (1.81, 2.45)

2.54 (2.11, 3.05)

1.88 (1.65, 2.15)

1.45 (1.24, 1.69)

4.43 (3.61, 5.44)

3.30 (2.52, 4.32)

 Higher (Above grade 10)

15.77 (12.31, 20.19)

6.61 (4.75, 9.18)

2.09 (1.59, 2.76)

2.39 (1.84, 3.11)

4.43 (3.67, 5.35)

2.87 (2.32, 3.54)

10.83 (8.45, 13.88)

6.13 (4.64, 8.11)

d Wealth

 Quintile 5

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Quintile 4

0.39 (0.30, 0.50)

0.42 (0.33, 0.54)

0.20 (0.15, 0.28)

0.26 (0.18, 0.36)

0.78 (0.67, 0.92)

0.80 (0.69, 0.93)

0.28 (0.22, 0.35)

0.33 (0.26, 0.42)

 Quintile 3

0.09 (0.07, 0.13)

0.11 (0.08, 0.15)

0.22 (0.17, 0.29)

0.29 (0.21, 0.39)

0.54 (0.44, 0.67)

0.61 (0.50, 0.74)

0.09 (0.07, 0.12)

0.12 (0.09, 0.15)

 Quintile 2

0.02 (0.01, 0.02)

0.02 (0.01, 0.03)

0.26 (0.20, 0.35)

0.34 (0.25, 0.48)

0.36 (0.29, 0.45)

0.44 (0.35, 0.55)

0.02 (0.01, 0.02)

0.02 (0.01, 0.03)

 Quintile 1

0.00 (0.00, 0.00)

0.00 (0.00, 0.01)

0.13 (0.10, 0.18)

0.19 (0.14, 0.26)

0.23 (0.18, 0.28)

0.28 (0.22, 0.35)

0.00 (0.00, 0.00)

0.00 (0.00, 0.01)

e Residency

 Urban

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Rural

0.15 (0.10, 0.22)

0.03 (0.02, 0.05)

0.62 (0.49, 0.77)

0.67 (0.53, 0.84)

0.76 (0.63, 0.91)

0.88 (0.74, 1.05)

0.23 (0.16, 0.33)

0.20 (0.15, 0.27)

e Provinces

 Province 1

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Province 2

0.44 (0.27, 0.73)

0.26 (0.15, 0.44)

0.35 (0.24, 0.51)

0.27 (0.18, 0.41)

1.14 (0.83, 1.58)

1.12 (0.81, 1.53)

0.46 (0.28, 0.74)

0.35 (0.22, 0.53)

 Province 3

3.74 (2.29, 6.09)

5.20 (3.22, 8.42)

0.64 (0.45, 0.91)

0.49 (0.34, 0.72)

0.83 (0.61, 1.11)

0.63 (0.49, 0.82)

1.42 (0.95, 2.14)

0.86 (0.61, 1.22)

 Province 4

1.65 (1.02, 2.66)

2.21 (1.37, 3.58)

0.99 (0.70, 1.40)

0.85 (0.59, 1.22)

1.08 (0.81, 1.43)

1.03 (0.78, 1.36)

1.25 (0.83, 1.86)

1.22 (0.85, 1.76)

 Province 5

1.26 (0.76, 2.09)

1.19 (0.69, 2.05)

0.85 (0.58, 1.24)

0.75 (0.48, 1.17)

1.24 (0.93, 1.66)

1.19 (0.92, 1.53)

1.08 (0.68, 1.71)

0.92 (0.63, 1.35)

 Province 6

0.28 (0.16, 0.48)

1.37 (0.81, 2.34)

0.78 (0.53, 1.16)

1.43 (0.91, 2.22)

0.36 (0.25, 0.51)

0.46 (0.33, 0.65)

0.22 (0.13, 0.38)

0.94 (0.62, 1.41)

 Province 7

0.49 (0.27, 0.91)

0.78 (0.44, 1.41)

0.79 (0.54, 1.14)

1.12 (0.77, 1.65)

0.54 (0.39, 0.75)

0.59 (0.43, 0.79)

0.40 (0.20, 0.82)

0.61 (0.34, 1.08)

e Developmental region

 Eastern

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Central

2.64 (1.70, 4.11)

2.62 (1.59, 4.30)

0.62 (0.45, 0.85)

0.48 (0.33, 0.68)

1.06 (0.83, 1.36)

0.90 (0.71, 1.14)

1.39 (0.95, 2.04)

0.99 (0.69, 1.42)

 Western

2.07 (1.33, 3.23)

2.18 (1.34, 3.54)

0.99 (0.71, 1.38)

0.78 (0.54, 1.12)

1.42 (1.12, 1.79)

1.31 (1.05, 1.63)

1.66 (1.11, 2.47)

1.41 (0.98, 2.03)

 Mid-western

0.77 (0.46, 1.27)

2.47 (1.37, 4.43)

0.97 (0.68, 1.38)

1.45 (0.94, 2.23)

0.61 (0.47, 0.78)

0.73 (0.57, 0.94)

0.59 (0.37, 0.96)

1.46 (0.92, 2.32)

 Far-western

0.64 (0.35, 1.16)

1.19 (0.67, 2.12)

0.88 (0.61, 1.27)

1.26 (0.87, 1.84)

0.58 (0.43, 0.78)

0.64 (0.48, 0.84)

0.51 (0.25, 1.03)

0.85 (0.47, 1.53)

e Ecological region

 Mountain

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Hill

4.11 (1.47, 11.49)

2.17 (0.86, 5.47)

1.03 (0.70, 1.50)

0.74 (0.50, 1.10)

2.19 (1.59, 3.02)

1.73 (1.33, 2.25)

3.77 (1.48, 9.61)

1.44 (0.78, 2.67)

 Terai

3.08 (1.15, 8.27)

0.61 (0.24, 1.54)

0.92 (0.62, 1.38)

0.56 (0.36, 0.85)

3.18 (2.33, 4.34)

2.35 (1.79, 3.07)

4.44 (1.77, 11.10)

1.24 (0.66, 2.31)

e Eco-developmental region

 Central hill

Reference

Reference

Reference

Reference

 Eastern mountain

0.05 (0.01, 0.20)

0.18 (0.04–0.75)

1.74 (0.88, 3.42)

4.15 (1.84, 9.37)

0.57 (0.40, 0.83)

1.08 (0.78, 1.50)

0.13 (0.03, 0.54)

1.12 (0.33, 3.77)

 Central mountain

0.17 (0.03, 0.91)

0.37 (0.09–1.49)

0.61 (0.30, 1.26)

0.92 (0.51, 1.64)

0.39 (0.18, 0.86)

0.57 (0.33, 0.96)

0.29 (0.07, 1.18)

0.88 (0.46, 1.68)

 Western mountain

0.04 (0.01, 0.18)

0.09 (0.02–0.43)

1.27 (0.77, 2.10)

3.36 (2.02, 5.59)

0.35 (0.23, 0.52)

0.58 (0.40, 0.82)

0.09 (0.02, 0.37)

0.42 (0.13, 1.40)

 Eastern hill

0.03 (0.01, 0.08)

0.08 (0.04–0.19)

0.96 (0.58, 1.60)

2.09 (1.22, 3.58)

0.68 (0.41, 1.12)

1.24 (0.76, 2.02)

0.11 (0.05, 0.29)

0.82 (0.35, 1.90)

 Western hill

0.28 (0.17, 0.46)

0.29 (0.18–0.46)

1.54 (1.10, 2.15)

1.95 (1.42, 2.69)

1.25 (0.94, 1.66)

1.63 (1.23, 2.16)

0.69 (0.47, 1.01)

1.28 (0.91, 1.80)

 Mid-western hill

0.06 (0.03, 0.10)

0.19 (0.11–0.32)

1.23 (0.84, 1.79)

3.31 (2.26, 4.84)

0.60 (0.42, 0.85)

1.06 (0.76, 1.47)

0.15 (0.08, 0.28)

1.13 (0.67, 1.91)

 Far-western hill

0.01 (0.00, 0.03)

0.03 (0.01–0.07)

0.84 (0.52, 1.36)

2.13 (1.35, 3.35)

0.53 (0.34, 0.83)

1.01 (0.68, 1.51)

0.03 (0.01, 0.09)

0.28 (0.10, 0.84)

 Eastern terai

0.25 (0.15, 0.42)

0.11 (0.06–0.19)

1.62 (1.07, 2.44)

1.45 (0.92, 2.28)

1.33 (0.99, 1.79)

1.53 (1.15, 2.02)

0.77 (0.50, .17)

0.87 (0.59, 1.30)

 Central terai

0.14 (0.08, 0.26)

0.08 (0.04–0.14)

0.61 (0.42, 0.89)

0.66 (0.45, 0.98)

1.43 (0.99, 2.06)

1.91 (1.36, 2.70)

0.47 (0.27, 0.79)

0.68 (0.45, 1.04)

 Western terai

0.42 (0.22, 0.82)

0.19 (0.09–0.38)

1.01 (0.59, 1.71)

0.84 (0.49, 1.44)

1.95 (1.39, 2.74)

2.27 (1.71, 3.02)

1.15 (0.67, 1.97)

1.19 (0.75, 1.89)

 Mid-western terai

0.29 (0.15, 0.56)

0.36 (0.16–0.84)

1.40 (0.77, 2.53)

2.00 (0.94, 4.25)

0.90 (0.63, 1.30)

1.21 (0.88, 1.66)

0.62 (0.37, 1.06)

1.33 (0.76, 2.32)

 Far-western terai

0.22 (0.12, 0.42)

0.19 (0.09–0.36)

1.74 (1.20, 2.52)

2.97 (1.95, 4.52)

0.68 (0.44, 1.07)

0.83 (0.55, 1.25)

0.53 (0.26, 1.11)

0.99 (0.53, 1.85)

  1. NA: Could not be estimated due to low cell frequency for that category
  2. Significant odds ratio are bolded
  3. aMultivariable model was adjusted for age, education level of the house hold head and household wealth quintiles
  4. bMultivariable model was adjusted for sex, education level of the house hold head and household wealth quintiles
  5. cMultivariable model was adjusted for age, sex, and household wealth quintiles
  6. dMultivariable model was adjusted for age, sex, and education level of the house hold head
  7. eMultivariable model was adjusted for age, sex, education level of the house hold head and household wealth quintiles