Variable | Clean Fuel Use (n = 3282, 34%) | Cooking in separate kitchen (n = 4229, 55.5%) | No Indoor Smoking (n = 5992, 56.9%) | No Indoor Air Pollution (n = 1705, 17.0%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Unadjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI) | |
a Sex of house hold head | ||||||||
 Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Female | 1.06 (0.93, 1.20) | 1.85 (1.52, 2.26) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.10) | 1.54 (1.32, 1.79) | 1.53 (1.38, 1.68) | 1.64 (1.47, 1.84) | 1.04 (0.90, 1.21) | 2.18 (1.79, 2.65) |
b Age of household head | ||||||||
 15–24 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 25–34 | 0.64 (0.47, 0.85) | 0.58 (0.42, 0.81) | 1.97 (1.45, 2.67) | 2.26 (1.65, 3.07) | 0.78 (0.59, 1.03) | 0.93 (0.71, 1.23) | 1.25 (0.94, 1.67) | 1.59 (1.07, 2.37) |
 35–44 | 0.49 (0.36, 0.66) | 0.44 (0.31, 0.62) | 2.98 (2.16, 4.11) | 3.78 (2.74, 5.21) | 0.66 (0.50, 0.87) | 0.88 (0.67, 1.15) | 1.37 (1.02, 1.84) | 2.12 (1.44, 3.12) |
 45–54 | 0.45 (0.33, 0.62) | 0.45 (0.32, 0.63) | 3.51 (2.57, 4.79) | 5.03 (3.68, 6.87) | 0.41 (0.31, 0.54) | 0.57 (0.42, 0.77) | 1.25 (0.91, 1.70) | 2.10 (1.33, 3.32) |
 55–64 | 0.33 (0.24, 0.46) | 0.42 (0.29, 0.62) | 2.79 (1.99, 3.91) | 4.85 (3.43, 6.86) | 0.38 (0.28, 0.50) | 0.61 (0.45, 0.82) | 0.99 (0.69, 1.44) | 2.37 (1.48, 3.80) |
  > =65 | 0.32 (0.22, 0.45) | 0.55 (0.36, 0.83) | 2.87 (2.02, 4.08) | 5.91 (4.10, 8.52) | 0.40 (0.30, 0.54) | 0.70 (0.52, 0.95) | 1.04 (0.71, 1.54) | 3.50 (2.13, 5.76) |
c Education level of household head | ||||||||
 No education, preschool | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Primary (Grade 1–5) | 1.96 (1.69, 2.28) | 2.08 (1.69, 2.55) | 1.43 (1.23, 1.67) | 1.81 (1.51, 2.17) | 0.99 (0.88, 1.12) | 0.96 (0.85, 1.09) | 1.68 (1.39, 2.03) | 1.80 (1.42, 2.28) |
 Secondary (Grade 5–10) | 4.71 (4.06, 5.46) | 3.01 (2.35, 3.86) | 2.10 (1.81, 2.45) | 2.54 (2.11, 3.05) | 1.88 (1.65, 2.15) | 1.45 (1.24, 1.69) | 4.43 (3.61, 5.44) | 3.30 (2.52, 4.32) |
 Higher (Above grade 10) | 15.77 (12.31, 20.19) | 6.61 (4.75, 9.18) | 2.09 (1.59, 2.76) | 2.39 (1.84, 3.11) | 4.43 (3.67, 5.35) | 2.87 (2.32, 3.54) | 10.83 (8.45, 13.88) | 6.13 (4.64, 8.11) |
d Wealth | ||||||||
 Quintile 5 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Quintile 4 | 0.39 (0.30, 0.50) | 0.42 (0.33, 0.54) | 0.20 (0.15, 0.28) | 0.26 (0.18, 0.36) | 0.78 (0.67, 0.92) | 0.80 (0.69, 0.93) | 0.28 (0.22, 0.35) | 0.33 (0.26, 0.42) |
 Quintile 3 | 0.09 (0.07, 0.13) | 0.11 (0.08, 0.15) | 0.22 (0.17, 0.29) | 0.29 (0.21, 0.39) | 0.54 (0.44, 0.67) | 0.61 (0.50, 0.74) | 0.09 (0.07, 0.12) | 0.12 (0.09, 0.15) |
 Quintile 2 | 0.02 (0.01, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) | 0.26 (0.20, 0.35) | 0.34 (0.25, 0.48) | 0.36 (0.29, 0.45) | 0.44 (0.35, 0.55) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.02) | 0.02 (0.01, 0.03) |
 Quintile 1 | 0.00 (0.00, 0.00) | 0.00 (0.00, 0.01) | 0.13 (0.10, 0.18) | 0.19 (0.14, 0.26) | 0.23 (0.18, 0.28) | 0.28 (0.22, 0.35) | 0.00 (0.00, 0.00) | 0.00 (0.00, 0.01) |
e Residency | ||||||||
 Urban | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Rural | 0.15 (0.10, 0.22) | 0.03 (0.02, 0.05) | 0.62 (0.49, 0.77) | 0.67 (0.53, 0.84) | 0.76 (0.63, 0.91) | 0.88 (0.74, 1.05) | 0.23 (0.16, 0.33) | 0.20 (0.15, 0.27) |
e Provinces | ||||||||
 Province 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Province 2 | 0.44 (0.27, 0.73) | 0.26 (0.15, 0.44) | 0.35 (0.24, 0.51) | 0.27 (0.18, 0.41) | 1.14 (0.83, 1.58) | 1.12 (0.81, 1.53) | 0.46 (0.28, 0.74) | 0.35 (0.22, 0.53) |
 Province 3 | 3.74 (2.29, 6.09) | 5.20 (3.22, 8.42) | 0.64 (0.45, 0.91) | 0.49 (0.34, 0.72) | 0.83 (0.61, 1.11) | 0.63 (0.49, 0.82) | 1.42 (0.95, 2.14) | 0.86 (0.61, 1.22) |
 Province 4 | 1.65 (1.02, 2.66) | 2.21 (1.37, 3.58) | 0.99 (0.70, 1.40) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.22) | 1.08 (0.81, 1.43) | 1.03 (0.78, 1.36) | 1.25 (0.83, 1.86) | 1.22 (0.85, 1.76) |
 Province 5 | 1.26 (0.76, 2.09) | 1.19 (0.69, 2.05) | 0.85 (0.58, 1.24) | 0.75 (0.48, 1.17) | 1.24 (0.93, 1.66) | 1.19 (0.92, 1.53) | 1.08 (0.68, 1.71) | 0.92 (0.63, 1.35) |
 Province 6 | 0.28 (0.16, 0.48) | 1.37 (0.81, 2.34) | 0.78 (0.53, 1.16) | 1.43 (0.91, 2.22) | 0.36 (0.25, 0.51) | 0.46 (0.33, 0.65) | 0.22 (0.13, 0.38) | 0.94 (0.62, 1.41) |
 Province 7 | 0.49 (0.27, 0.91) | 0.78 (0.44, 1.41) | 0.79 (0.54, 1.14) | 1.12 (0.77, 1.65) | 0.54 (0.39, 0.75) | 0.59 (0.43, 0.79) | 0.40 (0.20, 0.82) | 0.61 (0.34, 1.08) |
e Developmental region | ||||||||
 Eastern | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Central | 2.64 (1.70, 4.11) | 2.62 (1.59, 4.30) | 0.62 (0.45, 0.85) | 0.48 (0.33, 0.68) | 1.06 (0.83, 1.36) | 0.90 (0.71, 1.14) | 1.39 (0.95, 2.04) | 0.99 (0.69, 1.42) |
 Western | 2.07 (1.33, 3.23) | 2.18 (1.34, 3.54) | 0.99 (0.71, 1.38) | 0.78 (0.54, 1.12) | 1.42 (1.12, 1.79) | 1.31 (1.05, 1.63) | 1.66 (1.11, 2.47) | 1.41 (0.98, 2.03) |
 Mid-western | 0.77 (0.46, 1.27) | 2.47 (1.37, 4.43) | 0.97 (0.68, 1.38) | 1.45 (0.94, 2.23) | 0.61 (0.47, 0.78) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.94) | 0.59 (0.37, 0.96) | 1.46 (0.92, 2.32) |
 Far-western | 0.64 (0.35, 1.16) | 1.19 (0.67, 2.12) | 0.88 (0.61, 1.27) | 1.26 (0.87, 1.84) | 0.58 (0.43, 0.78) | 0.64 (0.48, 0.84) | 0.51 (0.25, 1.03) | 0.85 (0.47, 1.53) |
e Ecological region | ||||||||
 Mountain | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Hill | 4.11 (1.47, 11.49) | 2.17 (0.86, 5.47) | 1.03 (0.70, 1.50) | 0.74 (0.50, 1.10) | 2.19 (1.59, 3.02) | 1.73 (1.33, 2.25) | 3.77 (1.48, 9.61) | 1.44 (0.78, 2.67) |
 Terai | 3.08 (1.15, 8.27) | 0.61 (0.24, 1.54) | 0.92 (0.62, 1.38) | 0.56 (0.36, 0.85) | 3.18 (2.33, 4.34) | 2.35 (1.79, 3.07) | 4.44 (1.77, 11.10) | 1.24 (0.66, 2.31) |
e Eco-developmental region | ||||||||
 Central hill | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
 Eastern mountain | 0.05 (0.01, 0.20) | 0.18 (0.04–0.75) | 1.74 (0.88, 3.42) | 4.15 (1.84, 9.37) | 0.57 (0.40, 0.83) | 1.08 (0.78, 1.50) | 0.13 (0.03, 0.54) | 1.12 (0.33, 3.77) |
 Central mountain | 0.17 (0.03, 0.91) | 0.37 (0.09–1.49) | 0.61 (0.30, 1.26) | 0.92 (0.51, 1.64) | 0.39 (0.18, 0.86) | 0.57 (0.33, 0.96) | 0.29 (0.07, 1.18) | 0.88 (0.46, 1.68) |
 Western mountain | 0.04 (0.01, 0.18) | 0.09 (0.02–0.43) | 1.27 (0.77, 2.10) | 3.36 (2.02, 5.59) | 0.35 (0.23, 0.52) | 0.58 (0.40, 0.82) | 0.09 (0.02, 0.37) | 0.42 (0.13, 1.40) |
 Eastern hill | 0.03 (0.01, 0.08) | 0.08 (0.04–0.19) | 0.96 (0.58, 1.60) | 2.09 (1.22, 3.58) | 0.68 (0.41, 1.12) | 1.24 (0.76, 2.02) | 0.11 (0.05, 0.29) | 0.82 (0.35, 1.90) |
 Western hill | 0.28 (0.17, 0.46) | 0.29 (0.18–0.46) | 1.54 (1.10, 2.15) | 1.95 (1.42, 2.69) | 1.25 (0.94, 1.66) | 1.63 (1.23, 2.16) | 0.69 (0.47, 1.01) | 1.28 (0.91, 1.80) |
 Mid-western hill | 0.06 (0.03, 0.10) | 0.19 (0.11–0.32) | 1.23 (0.84, 1.79) | 3.31 (2.26, 4.84) | 0.60 (0.42, 0.85) | 1.06 (0.76, 1.47) | 0.15 (0.08, 0.28) | 1.13 (0.67, 1.91) |
 Far-western hill | 0.01 (0.00, 0.03) | 0.03 (0.01–0.07) | 0.84 (0.52, 1.36) | 2.13 (1.35, 3.35) | 0.53 (0.34, 0.83) | 1.01 (0.68, 1.51) | 0.03 (0.01, 0.09) | 0.28 (0.10, 0.84) |
 Eastern terai | 0.25 (0.15, 0.42) | 0.11 (0.06–0.19) | 1.62 (1.07, 2.44) | 1.45 (0.92, 2.28) | 1.33 (0.99, 1.79) | 1.53 (1.15, 2.02) | 0.77 (0.50, .17) | 0.87 (0.59, 1.30) |
 Central terai | 0.14 (0.08, 0.26) | 0.08 (0.04–0.14) | 0.61 (0.42, 0.89) | 0.66 (0.45, 0.98) | 1.43 (0.99, 2.06) | 1.91 (1.36, 2.70) | 0.47 (0.27, 0.79) | 0.68 (0.45, 1.04) |
 Western terai | 0.42 (0.22, 0.82) | 0.19 (0.09–0.38) | 1.01 (0.59, 1.71) | 0.84 (0.49, 1.44) | 1.95 (1.39, 2.74) | 2.27 (1.71, 3.02) | 1.15 (0.67, 1.97) | 1.19 (0.75, 1.89) |
 Mid-western terai | 0.29 (0.15, 0.56) | 0.36 (0.16–0.84) | 1.40 (0.77, 2.53) | 2.00 (0.94, 4.25) | 0.90 (0.63, 1.30) | 1.21 (0.88, 1.66) | 0.62 (0.37, 1.06) | 1.33 (0.76, 2.32) |
 Far-western terai | 0.22 (0.12, 0.42) | 0.19 (0.09–0.36) | 1.74 (1.20, 2.52) | 2.97 (1.95, 4.52) | 0.68 (0.44, 1.07) | 0.83 (0.55, 1.25) | 0.53 (0.26, 1.11) | 0.99 (0.53, 1.85) |