Table 1 Distribution of markers of indoor air pollution by key socio-demographic, geographic and ecological variables: 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey
Variable | Fuel type | Â | Cooking practice | Â | Indoor smoking | Â | Indoor air pollution | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Clean (3282, 34%) | Unclean (7730, 66%) | p-value | Separate kitchen (4229, 55.5%) | No separate kitchen (3188, 44.5%) | p-value | No (5992, 56.9%) | Yes (5048, 43.1%) | p-value | No (1705, 17.0%) | Yes (9335, 83.0%) | p-value | |
n (%) | n (%) | Â | n (%) | n (%) | Â | n (%) | n (%) | Â | n (%) | n (%) | Â | |
Sex of household head | ||||||||||||
 Male | 2175 (67.9) | 5254 (69.1) | 0.4118 | 2811 (68.2) | 2097 (67.4) | 0.5803 | 3761 (64.8) | 3690 (73.8) | < 0.001 | 1132 (67.9) | 6319 (68.8) | 0.5724 |
 Female | 1107 (32.1) | 2476 (30.9) |  | 1418 (31.8) | 1091 (32.6) |  | 2231 (35.2) | 1358 (26.2) |  | 573 (32.1) | 3016 (31.2) |  |
Age of household head in, years | ||||||||||||
 15–25 | 278 (8.48) | 321 (4.02) | < 0.001 | 163 (3.7) | 301 (9.7) | < 0.001 | 412 (7.1) | 202 (3.8) | < 0.001 | 85 (4.9) | 529 (5.8) | 0.0166 |
 25–35 | 787 (24.4) | 1444 (18.2) |  | 809 (18.5) | 743 (24.4) |  | 1417 (23.5) | 820 (16.1) |  | 363 (21.2) | 1874 (20.1) |  |
 35–45 | 781 (23.7) | 1774 (23.0) |  | 976 (23.5) | 664 (20.4) |  | 1503 (25.2) | 1052 (20.5) |  | 442 (26.0) | 2113 (22.6) |  |
 45–55 | 681 (20.8) | 1684 (21.7) |  | 1002 (23.9) | 581 (17.7) |  | 1150 (18.8) | 1218 (24.7) |  | 383 (22.2) | 1985 (21.2) |  |
 55–65 | 448 (12.8) | 1392 (18.3) |  | 721 (16.7) | 501 (15.5) |  | 830 (13.9) | 1010 (19.7) |  | 244 (14.1) | 1596 (16.9) |  |
  > 65 | 307 (9.85) | 1115 (14.8) |  | 558 (13.6) | 398 (12.3) |  | 680 (11.5) | 746 (15.2) |  | 188 (11.7) | 1238 (13.4) |  |
Education level of household head | ||||||||||||
 No education, preschool | 642 (18.6) | 3775 (49.6) | < 0.001 | 1439 (31.4) | 1484 (45.5) | < 0.001 | 2078 (33.8) | 2345 (46.0) | < 0.001 | 289 (15.9) | 4134 (43.8) | < 0.001 |
 Primary (Grade 1–5) | 585 (18.3) | 1976 (24.9) |  | 950 (22.1) | 756 (22.4) |  | 1167 (19.4) | 1394 (26.7) |  | 238 (14.8) | 2323 (24.2) |  |
 Secondary (Grade 5–10) | 1231 (37.4) | 1608 (21.2) |  | 1254 (31.5) | 646 (21.7) |  | 1798 (30.3) | 1048 (21.9) |  | 668 (39.0) | 2178 (24.2) |  |
 Higher (Above grade 10) | 818 (25.3) | 366 (4.27) |  | 583 (14.8) | 300 (10.2) |  | 948 (16.4) | 251 (5.1) |  | 509 (30.2) | 690 (7.7) |  |
 Don’t know | 6 (0.36) | 5 (0.08) |  | 3 (0.2) | 2 (0.2) |  | 1 (0.0) | 10 (0.4) |  | 1 (0.1) | 10 (0.2) |  |
Wealth quintile | ||||||||||||
 Quintile 1 | 19 (0.47) | 2744 (30.2) | < 0.001 | 943 (17.1) | 1290 (32.3) | < 0.001 | 1002 (13.2) | 1764 (29.1) | < 0.001 | 4 (0.2) | 2762 (24.1) | < 0.001 |
 Quintile 2 | 137 (3.26) | 2289 (29.0) |  | 926 (19.5) | 630 (18.9) |  | 1152 (17.4) | 1277 (24.0) |  | 39 (1.9) | 2390 (24.0) |  |
 Quintile 3 | 616 (15.7) | 1579 (22.3) |  | 675 (15.3) | 511 (17.7) |  | 273 (20.8) | 927 (19.2) |  | 220 (11.0) | 1980 (21.9) |  |
 Quintile 4 | 1147 (36.3) | 777 (12.5) |  | 681 (18.8) | 576 (23.6) |  | 1303 (24.5) | 637 (15.6) |  | 505 (28.5) | 1435 (19.1) |  |
 Quintile 5 | 1363 (44.3) | 341 (5.94) |  | 1004 (29.3) | 181 (7.5) |  | 1262 (24.1) | 443 (12.1) |  | 937 (58.4) | 768 (10.9) |  |
Residency | ||||||||||||
 Urban | 2824 (86.3) | 4129 (48.5) | < 0.001 | 2867 (68.3) | 1824 (57.0) | < 0.001 | 3985 (64.3) | 2993 (57.7) | 0.0033 | 1458 (85.1) | 5520 (56.6) | < 0.001 |
 Rural | 458 (13.7) | 3601 (51.5) |  | 1362 (31.7) | 1364 (43.0) |  | 2007 (35.7) | 2055 (42.3) |  | 247 (14.9) | 3815 (43.4) |  |
Provinces | ||||||||||||
 Province 1 | 530 (15.7) | 1140 (19.4) | < 0.001 | 637 (17.8) | 353 (12.9) | < 0.001 | 1001 (18.8) | 674 (17.3) | < 0.001 | 335 (19.6) | 1340 (17.9) | < 0.001 |
 Province 2 | 285 (8.36) | 1336 (23.3) |  | 270 (7.9) | 401 (16.5) |  | 998 (20.0) | 628 (16.0) |  | 174 (10.0) | 1452 (19.9) |  |
 Province 3 | 819 (40.9) | 818 (13.5) |  | 706 (26.6) | 645 (30.2) |  | 828 (21.8) | 811 (24.2) |  | 343 (32.5) | 1296 (20.9) |  |
 Province 4 | 561 (12.7) | 930 (9.52) |  | 695 (13.3) | 417 (9.8) |  | 906 (11.4) | 592 (9.7) |  | 300 (13.7) | 1198 (10.0) |  |
 Province 5 | 577 (16.5) | 1050 (16.1) |  | 736 (19.2) | 490 (16.5) |  | 1040 (18.3) | 591 (13.5) |  | 324 (18.6) | 1307 (15.8) |  |
 Province 6 | 240 (1.70) | 1245 (7.62) |  | 630 (6.7) | 472 (6.2) |  | 572 (3.4) | 916 (8.6) |  | 110 (1.6) | 1378 (6.4) |  |
 Province 7 | 270 (4.16) | 1211 (10.4) |  | 555 (8.5) | 410 (7.9) |  | 647 (6.4) | 836 (10.8) |  | 119 (4.0) | 1364 (9.2) |  |
Ecological region | ||||||||||||
 Mountain | 114 (2.80) | 797 (9.31) | 0.0012 | 436 (8.7) | 335 (8.6) | 0.6546 | 303 (4.3) | 608 (10.7) | < 0.001 | 43 (2.1) | 868 (8.1) | 0.0005 |
 Hill | 1550 (53.1) | 3745 (43.1) |  | 2340 (55.7) | 1756 (53.4) |  | 2740 (44.2) | 2571 (49.5) |  | 723 (45.7) | 4588 (46.7) |  |
 Terai | 1618 (44.1) | 3188 (47.6) |  | 1453 (35.7) | 1097 (38.0) |  | 2949 (51.4) | 1869 (39.8) |  | 939 (52.2) | 3879 (45.2) |  |
Developmental region | ||||||||||||
 Eastern | 565 (16.8) | 1578 (26.9) | < 0.001 | 654 (18.3) | 400 (14.9) | 0.0004 | 1249 (23.6) | 899 (23.2) | < 0.001 | 354 (20.7) | 1794 (24.0) | < 0.001 |
 Central | 1069 (48.2) | 1716 (29.3) |  | 959 (34.0) | 999 (44.8) |  | 1578 (37.0) | 1214 (34.2) |  | 498 (41.4) | 2294 (34.6) |  |
 Western | 936 (23.8) | 1487 (18.5) |  | 1109 (24.5) | 714 (20.2) |  | 1570 (23.5) | 864 (16.2) |  | 526 (27.1) | 1908 (19.0) |  |
 Mid-western | 442 (7.05) | 1738 (14.8) |  | 952 (14.7) | 665 (12.3) |  | 948 (9.6) | 1235 (15.5) |  | 208 (6.8) | 1975 (13.2) |  |
 Far-western | 270 (4.16) | 1211 (10.4) |  | 555 (8.5) | 410 (7.9) |  | 647 (6.4) | 836 (10.8) |  | 119 (4.0) | 1364 (9.2) |  |
Eco-developmental region | ||||||||||||
 Eastern mountain | 11 (0.48) | 137 (2.56) | < 0.001 | 76 (2.5) | 38 (1.5) | 0.0002 | 62 (1.4) | 86 (2.5) | < 0.001 | 5 (0.5) | 143 (2.1) | < 0.001 |
 Central mountain | 55 (1.59) | 168 (2.39) |  | 77 (1.9) | 100 (3.3) |  | 74 (1.3) | 149 (3.2) |  | 19 (1.1) | 204 (2.3) |  |
 Western mountain | 48 (0.72) | 492 (4.36) |  | 283 (4.3) | 197 (3.7) |  | 167 (1.7) | 373 (5.0) |  | 19 (0.5) | 521 (3.6) |  |
 Eastern hill | 30 (1.11) | 508 (9.05) |  | 193 (5.9) | 174 (6.6) |  | 252 (5.2) | 286 (7.8) |  | 19 (1.4) | 519 (7.3) |  |
 Central hill | 699 (36.6) | 568 (9.31) |  | 575 (22.7) | 504 (24.6) |  | 676 (18.5) | 593 (18.8) |  | 285 (28.1) | 984 (16.7) |  |
 Western hill | 577 (13.3) | 1053 (12.2) |  | 806 (16.7) | 461 (11.8) |  | 1009 (13.7) | 632 (11.2) |  | 305 (14.2) | 1336 (12.3) |  |
 Mid-western hill | 233 (1.88) | 1176 (8.49) |  | 583 (7.5) | 437 (6.7) |  | 616 (4.8) | 796 (8.1) |  | 108 (1.9) | 1304 (7.1) |  |
 Far-western hill | 11 (0.15) | 440 (4.04) |  | 183 (2.9) | 180 (3.7) |  | 187 (2.0) | 264 (3.7) |  | 6 (0.2) | 445 (3.2) |  |
 Eastern terai | 524 (15.2) | 933 (15.3) |  | 385 (9.9) | 188 (6.7) |  | 935 (17.0) | 527 (13.0) |  | 330 (18.8) | 1132 (14.6) |  |
 Central terai | 315 (10.0) | 980 (17.6) |  | 307 (9.5) | 395 (16.9) |  | 828 (17.2) | 472 (12.2) |  | 194 (12.3) | 1106 (15.6) |  |
 Western terai | 359 (10.5) | 434 (6.31) |  | 303 (7.8) | 253 (8.4) |  | 561 (9.7) | 232 (5.0) |  | 221 (12.9) | 572 (6.6) |  |
 Mid-western terai | 192 (5.01) | 326 (4.34) |  | 226 (5.2) | 135 (4.0) |  | 281 (4.3) | 237 (4.9) |  | 91 (4.7) | 427 (4.5) |  |
 Far-western terai | 228 (3.44) | 515 (4.00) |  | 232 (3.3) | 126 (2.1) |  | 344 (3.1) | 401 (4.7) |  | 103 (3.5) | 642 (3.9) |  |