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Table 1 Summary table1

From: Sport-based youth development interventions in the United States: a systematic review

Intervention /Author (year)

Intervention Characteristics

Participants

Methodology

Analysis Strategy

Outcomes Addressed

Main Findings

Study Quality

Summary of Study Limitations

Summer Sport and Life Skills Camps

Anderson-Butcher et al. (2013)

Participants attended a 4-week sport-based PYD summer camp for 5 h per day.

N = 193

Age 9–16

(Mean = 11.93)

Mixed methods, single group

Dependent t-test; content analysis of program observations

Social competence, sport-specific social competence, belonging

Process: Engagement and interaction between staff and youth noted as a major strength; behavioral management and social skill promotion were areas in need of improvement.

Efficacy: No differences reported in social competence or belonging; pre-post improvements were reported in athletic competence (p < .01).

Weak; coherence between purpose and qualitative method. No philosophical assumptions discussed

Evidence of selection bias; no comparison group; large percentage of participants who did not complete measures; lack of blinded outcomes; less than optimal scale reliabilities; philosophical assumptions, data collection methods, and data analysis methods not reported in detail

Anderson-Butcher et al. (2014)

Participants attended a 4-week sport-based PYD summer camp for 5 h per day.

N = 287

Age 9–16

(Mean = 11.85)

Quantitative, single group

Latent growth curve modeling

Social competence, sport-specific competence, belonging, self-control, effort, teamwork, social responsibility

Efficacy: Social responsibility was reported to increase from pre-to-posttest. No other outcomes improved. Moderator analysis showed that those with lowest pre-test scores benefitted most from the program. Perceived belonging was shown to predict changes in outcome variables.

Weak

Evidence of selection bias; no comparison group; lack of reporting on withdrawals; lack of blinded outcomes

Gano-Overway et al. (2009)

See Newton et al.

N = 395

Age 9–16

(Mean = 11.8)

Quantitative, single group, cross-sectional

Test of mediation via structural equation modelling

Caring climate, emotional self-regulation, empathic self-efficacy, prosocial and antisocial behaviors

Efficacy: Affective self-regulatory efficacy and empathic self-efficacy mediated the relationship between a caring climate and youth’s social behaviors.

Weak

Cross-sectional study design; unable to account for likely covariates; amount of variance explained in models suggests other factors are salient in explaining behaviors

McDavid et al. (2015)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 6.5 h per day.

N = 321

Age 7–14

(Mean = 10.33)

Quantitative, single group

Latent variable longitudinal structural equation panel modeling

Self-worth, hope

Efficacy: No changes reported in self-worth or hope across the program. Gender and race did not moderate outcomes. Changes in self-worth predicted changes in hope, but only explained a small percent of the variance (2–7%).

Weak

Single group; non-causal design; measurement time lag; small effect sizes

McDavid et al. (2017)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 7 h per day. Group leaders were randomly assigned to receive standard training or training grounded in SDT.

N = 379

Age range NR

Quantitative, randomized control trial

Multi-level latent variable modeling, mediational analysis

Psychological need support, psychological need satisfaction, hope, self-worth

Process: Leader behavior was shown to influence child level outcomes (regardless of group).

Efficacy: Changes in psychological need satisfaction predicted changes in hope and self-worth. Intervention did not affect leader behavior as intended.

Moderate

Lack of intervention effect; non-blinded outcomes

Newton et al. (2007)

Participants attended a 5-week summer camp sponsored by the NYSP. Camp sessions were attended daily and consisted of 4 h of PA, 1 hour of health education, lunch, and snacks. Groups were separated based on groups leader training. One group received a caring climate curriculum while other received the standard PYD curriculum.

N = 353

Age 9–17

(Mean = 12.18)

Quantitative, two-group, cross-sectional

Multivariate and univariate tests of covariance

Caring, perceived motivational climate, empathic concern, enjoyment, anticipated future participation

Efficacy: Caring group participants reported a higher level of perceived caring climate and lower level of perceived ego-oriented climate. Those in the caring group reported higher empathic concern and an increased likelihood for future involvement.

Weak

Evidence of selection bias; non-blinded measures; lack of control for confounding variables; no information reported on dropouts; post-test only design

Riciputi et al. (2016)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 6.5 h per day.

N = 24

Age 8–14

Qualitative, case study

Thematic analysis

Character, perceptions of program impact

Process: Program seen as a safe place where youth can build high-quality and reciprocal relationships.

Efficacy: Participants discussed intrapersonal improvement (e.g., empowerment, values, behavior) and understanding of moral reasoning. Negative cases presented of three students not adhering to character concepts.

Philosophical underpinnings consistent with theory and method used in study

Use of grounded theory analysis techniques without completing a grounded theory study

Riley & Anderson-Butcher (2012)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 6 h per day.

N = 10

Age 31–58

Qualitative, general

Grounded theory approach

Camp outcomes for youth participants from parent perspective

Efficacy: Parents reported the camp provided general levels of biopsychosocial development, opportunities to explore broader horizons, and enhanced levels of psycho-social skills. Parents also reported having peace of mind knowing child was at program.

Lack of methodological coherence

Philosophical assumptions and specific methodology not reported; data analysis was a “grounded theory approach” but this was not consistent with study methodology

Riley et al. (2017; Riley, 2013)

Participants attended a 4-week sport-based PYD summer camp for 6 h per day.

N = 23 Staff

N = 329 Youth

Age 9–15 (youth)

Quantitative, single group pre-post

Multi-level modeling (youth outcomes nested within coach groups)

Social skills, youth-perceived staff practices

Efficacy: Self-control had a small (d = .29) but statistically significant increase from pre to post test. No statistical changes were noted in externalizing behaviors. Perceived emotional support was significantly related to perceived self-control (b = 1.13; p = .001); neither emotional support or autonomy support was predictive of reductions in externalizing behaviors.

Weak

Evidence of selection bias; lack of comparison group; non-blinded outcomes

Ullrich-French & McDonough (2013)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 6 h per day. Participants had to complete Year 1 of the summer PYD program and be eligible to come back in Year 2.

N = 215

Age 8–13

(Mean = 11.6)

Quantitative, single group, longitudinal

Logistic regression, multivariate analysis of covariance

Leader support, social competence, physical competence, self-worth, attraction to PA, hope

Efficacy: BMI (OR = 0.91), self-worth (OR = 2.15), program attendance (OR = 1.49), and perceptions of leader support (OR = 1.70) increased the likelihood that participants returned the following year.

Weak

Lack of data from those non-returners; lack of blinded outcome measures

Ullrich-French et al. (2012)

Participants attended a 4-week summer PYD through PA program for 6 h per day.

N = 197

Age 9–16

(Mean = 11.8)

Quantitative, single group

Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance

Leader support, social competence, physical competence, self-worth, attraction to PA, hope

Efficacy: Perceived social competence, perceived physical competence, physical self-worth, and global self-worth increased from pre to post program; no other variables showed change. Results were moderated by age, with older children experiencing more benefit from the program.

Weak

Lack of control group; lack of blinded outcome measures; short intervention and follow-up period

Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility

Cryan & Martinek (2017)

Intervention was an after-school soccer program grounded in TPSR principles. Participants attended the program 2 hours per day, 2 days per week, for 9 weeks.

N = 14

Age = 11–12

Mixed methods, single group pre-post

Deductive analysis; dependent t-test

Personal and social responsibility

Efficacy: There were no within group differences reported for personal responsibility, however within group improvements of social responsibility were noted. Qualitative data suggests that initiative and teacher-student relationships improved during the program. Teacher interviews suggest an increase in classroom behavior.

Weak; lack of coherence

Single group study; small sample size; selection bias; inconsistent attendance during intervention; non-blinded outcomes

Hayden et al. (2012; Hayden, 2010)

Intervention was a school-based program that used life skills programming and physical activity within the TPSR model. Students met twice per week for 1 hour over the course of the school year.

N = 63

Age = 9-12th grade

Qualitative, program evaluation

Content analysis; descriptive statistics

TPSR implementation, academics, social-emotional supports

Process: Data suggest that TPSR components of integration, transfer, empowerment, and teacher-student relationships were followed.

Efficacy: Students perceived increased effort in the classroom, increased positive communication with teachers, increased desire for academic accountability, increased effort in sport, increased sense of belonging, a sense of being a role model, accountability to teammates, and more care from adults. Advisors reported increased effort in the classroom along with increased participation and social-emotional development in the sport context (leadership, empowerment, boundaries, and healthy risk-taking).

Coherence between theory, methods, and analysis. No philosophical assumptions discussed

Lack of female participants; lack of differentiation between researcher and advisor roles; disconnect between cultural norms of key stakeholders

Jacobs (2016a)

Intervention was school-based and conducted within a volleyball unit of a physical education curriculum using TPSR principles. The study lasted 15 days.

N = 122

Age = 11–14

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Factorial analysis of variance

Youth experience, transfer of life skills

Efficacy: No group x time differences were reported for transfer of life skills. No effect on YES subscales for identity reflection, diverse peer relations, group processing skills, feedback leadership, and responsibility. Significant differences in youth experiences reported for: identity experiences (small effect .037), goal setting (small effect .043), effort (small effect .042), problem solving (moderate effect .108), time management (small effect, .06), emotional regulation (small effect .054), physical skills (moderate effect .102), prosocial norms (moderate effect .068); no effect on YES subscales for identity reflection, diverse peer relations, group processing skills, feedback leadership, and responsibility.

Weak

Lack of control for possible confounding variables; non-blinded outcomes; high risk for type I statistical error given the amount of analyses

Jacobs (2016b)

This qualitative paper examined program experiences in a community-based sport organization.

N = 11

Ages 12–18

Qualitative, phenomeno-graphic

Deductive analysis

Perceptions of life skill transfer, youth cognitive processes

Efficacy: Participants discussed personal impact of sport program, social responsibility, life skill development, and situational insights.

Lack of methodological coherence

Short interviews; lack of consistent methodology; highly deductive coding procedure

Martinek et al. (2006)

TPSR-based program in which youth leaders create physical activity lessons that reinforce life skills. Length, duration, and intensity of intervention were not reported.

N = 4

Age 14–17

Qualitative, case study

Case description

Developmental stages of youth leadership

Efficacy: Stage 1 is composed of needs-based leadership, Stage 2 is composed of planning and teaching, Stage 3 is composed of reflective leadership, and Stage 4 is composed of compassionate leadership.

Lack of methodological coherence

Philosophical assumptions, sampling strategy, sample description, data analysis methods, and validity assessments not reported

Melendez & Martinek (2015)

Intervention used sport clubs grounded in TPSR principles, mentoring, and youth leadership training. Intervention length, frequency, and intensity were not reported.

N = 5

Age = not reported

Qualitative, multiple case study

Deductive analysis

Program experiences

Efficacy: TPSR values deemed important to participants’ lives. Learned the value of helping others and leadership; however, the specific leadership program was not influential in teaching respect and caring values.

Philosophical assumptions, theory, and methods showed coherence

Small sample and lack of data regarding skills learned outside of program; deductive analysis

Miller (1997)

Intervention was school-based and conducted within a physical education course. Those in the intervention group participated in a TPSR-based socio-moral growth curriculum for 2 hours a day, 3 days a week, for 28 weeks.

N = 58

Age = 10–11

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Analysis of co-variance

Distributive justice reasoning, perceived competence

Efficacy: Results showed significant differences when controlling for pre-test scores on DJR favoring the treatment group (p < .05). Examination of improvement rates showed an absolute benefit increase of 26.6%, a relative benefit increase of 83.13%, and an NNT of 4–5; differences were also reported between groups for behavioral PC (p < .004), but not for athletic competence; no differences were found for perceptions of task or ego climate between groups.

Strong

Floor and ceiling effects of the TEOSQ prevented meaningful analysis of that data

Schilling et al. (2007)

Intervention was a youth-led TPSR program that met 1 day per week throughout the school year and for 3 weeks in the summer.

N = 12

Age 13–18

(Mean = 16.7)

Qualitative, general

Inductive and deductive analysis

Youth perceptions of program and program commitment

Process: Antecedents to commitment: program environment, program structure, relationship, personal characteristics. Barriers to commitment: program logistics and structure, personal factors. Nature of commitment: behavior and emotional involvement.

Lack of methodological coherence

No specific philosophical or methodological underpinnings

Walsh (2008)

TPSR-based career club program in which sport is used to teach responsibility and older and younger participants are paired to work within a mentoring relationship. Program met once per week, for 90 min, across a 9-week timespan.

N = 12

7th and 8th grade

Qualitative, case study

Inductive analysis

Employment, education

Efficacy: Participants reported the importance of having to work hard and stay focused, increased communication skills, clarity about the future, determination, ability to see path to goals, and increased effort and performance in school.

Conflicting paradigms of subjectivity and objectivity noted

Perceptions of employment not tied to actual employment outcomes

Walsh et al. (2010)

TPSR-based coaching club intervention that included 45 sessions over two academic school years. Sessions were provided once a week for one hour.

N = 13 youth

N = 3 adult leaders

Age = 9–11

Qualitative, program evaluation

Inductive and deductive analysis

Transfer of TPSR goals

Efficacy: Transfer of respect to the school environment; transfer of self- and emotional control in the school yard; worked harder in school; took more ownership over action in school; helped others and learned how to be an example for others outside of the program.

Coherence between philosophical assumptions and sampling strategy

Authors discuss grounded theory analysis techniques, but did not conduct a grounded theory study

Walsh et al. (2012)

Kinesiology Career Club is a TPSR-based program aimed at helping high school youth explore future careers in kinesiology. Program met within a school setting, twice per week for 75 min over a 10- to 12-week period.

N = 14

Ages = 14–15

Qualitative, program evaluation

Inductive and deductive analysis

Impact of KCC

Efficacy: Results discussed helping participants connect TPSR goals to possible futures, envisioning and exploring a career in Kinesiology, and helping to balance hopes and fears.

Methodology, data collection, and data analysis showed coherence

Lack of philosophical underpinnings

Walsh et al. (2015)

Kinesiology Career Club is a TPSR-based program aimed at helping high school youth explore future careers in kinesiology. Program met within a school setting, twice per week for 75 min over a 10- to 12-week period.

N = 8

Qualitative, case study

Inductive and deductive analysis

Mentors perceptions of KCC

Efficacy: Results discussed positive perceptions of KCC goals and the ability of the program to transfer program goals to participants’ possible future selves.

Methodology, data collection, and data analysis showed coherence

Lack of philosophical underpinnings

Whitley et al. (2016)

TPSR-based program developed to address the challenges faced by refugee youth. Program met once per week for 60 min (number of weeks was not reported).

N = 16

Age 10–18

Qualitative, methodology not explicitly reported

Hierarchical content analysis

Program experiences

Process: Themes discussed included having fun, experiencing sports, being a member of a team, and developing a relationship with adults.

Efficacy: Additional themes were learning sports, learning about respect, teamwork, and leadership, and transferring learning outside of program.

Lack of methodological coherence

Philosophical assumptions, methodology, and sampling strategy not explicitly addressed

Whitley et al. (2017)

TPSR model used to develop an 8-session program in collaboration between Southern Queens Park Association and Adelphi University. Visit to Adelphi University during 3rd and 10th week of programming to introduce participants to higher education, attend a class, dinner at campus cafeteria, meeting with admissions representative, and a sport event.

N = 7 youth participants

Age = 11.86

Qualitative, community-based participatory research

Inductive and deductive analysis

Program implementation and youth development outcomes

Process: Program climate and leader/mentor strategies identified as key to outcomes.

Efficacy: Skills learned, skills transferred, and intention to transfer personal and social responsibility, effort, self-regulation, leadership, empowerment, increase physical activity interest and experience, improved physical abilities.

Methodological coherence

Small sample size; limited program space; deductive nature of the analysis

Wright & Burton (2008)

Intervention was a school-based Tai Chi program grounded in TPSR principles and conducted within a physical education course. Program met twice per week for 50 min over a 10-week timeframe.

N = 23

Age = 14.8

Qualitative, program evaluation

Inductive and deductive analysis

Program characteristics

Process: Results discussed establishing a relevant curriculum, practicing life skills within program, seeing the potential to practice life skills outside of program, and creating a valued program.

Coherence between framework, methodology, and analysis

Lack of philosophical underpinnings to study; reliance on deductive coding

Wright et al. (2010)

Intervention was school-based and conducted within a physical education course. Those in the intervention group received a Tai Chi intervention grounded in TPSR principles for approximately 18 weeks.

N = 122 (sub-sample of 11 interviewed in a focus group) Age 14–18

(Mean = 14.8)

Mixed methods, quasi-experimental, program evaluation

Inductive and deductive analysis; descriptive

Grades, tardiness, absences, conduct

Efficacy: No significant group differences reported. Grades dropped for both groups, but slightly more for the control group; Absences increased in both groups. There was an increase in positive behavior and decrease in negative behavior reported in relation to the control group; however, these differences were not reported to be statistically significant. Qualitative data suggested youth perceived improvement in the TPSR levels.

Weak; framework, methodology, and methods were coherent. Data analysis limited the results

Selection bias; unclear blinding protocols; gender differences not explored; study restricted to one school; lack of control for known co-variates; deductive qualitative analysis

Wright et al. (2012)

TPSR-based Kung-Fu program that took place at a local YMCA. Program met once per week for 45–60 min across an academic school year.

N = 4

Age = 10–13

Qualitative, case study

Inductive and deductive analysis

Program experiences

Process: Overall positive program perceptions were discussed.

Efficacy: Case profiles discuss lessons learned and skills developed for each participant.

Methodology, data collection, and data analysis showed coherence

Lack of philosophical underpinnings; lack of rich data

Girls on the Run

Beller (2013)

Participants engaged in a 12-week program that meets twice per week for 1.5 h per session. The program combines training for a 5k with a positive youth development curricula. The curricula includes self-awareness and self-care (part 1), teambuilding, cooperation, and community building (part 2), and social contribution (part 3).

N = 209

High school-aged

Quantitative, case-control

Tests of group difference (t-test, ANOVA, chi-square)

Body image satisfaction, PA

Efficacy: No differences in body image satisfaction between those in GOTR and those not in GOTR; no differences in PA engagement either.

Weak

Self-reported PA data; selection bias; retrospective design; lack of control for potential confounding variable; non-blinded measures

Debate (2002)

See above.

N = 322

Age = 10

Quantitative, single group

Dependent t-test

Self-esteem, body image satisfaction, eating attitudes and behaviors

Efficacy: Significant improvements reported in self-esteem, body size satisfaction, and eating behaviors.

Weak

Single-group study; lack of control for confounding variables; self-reported outcomes

Debate & Delmar (2006)

See above.

N = 282

Age = 10.47

Quantitative, single group

Pre-post differences (t-test, Wilcoxon test)

Self-esteem, body image satisfaction, eating attitudes and behaviors, attitudes towards PA, empowerment, self-reported PA

Efficacy: Significant improvements reported in self-esteem, body size satisfaction, and PA behaviors, and some healthy eating and empowerment items.

Weak

Single-group study; lack of control for confounding variables; self-reported outcomes; different levels of exposure

Debate & Otero-Fisher (2005)

See above.

N = 157

Age = 10.25

Quantitative, single group pre-post

Pre-post differences (t-test, Wilcoxon test)

Self-esteem, body image satisfaction, eating attitudes and behaviors, attitudes towards PA, empowerment, self-reported PA

Efficacy: Significant improvements reported in self-esteem, body size satisfaction, and PA behaviors.

Weak

Single-group study; lack of control for confounding variables; self-reported outcomes

Debate et al. (2009)

See above.

N = 1034

Age 8–15

Quantitative, single group

Dependent t-test

Self-esteem, body size satisfaction, PA, PA commitment

Efficacy: Significant pre-post differences reported for self-esteem, body size satisfaction, and PA frequency.

Weak

Single-group study; large amounts of missing data; use of partial measures could question validity; unclear blinding protocols

Pettee Gabriel et al. (2011)

See above.

N = 877

Age 9–11

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Repeated measures analysis of covariance

Self-esteem, body size satisfaction, PA, PA commitment

Efficacy: No group x time interaction effects were found for self-esteem, body size discrepancy, or PA commitment. Differences were noted in PA levels: those never exposed and newly exposed had greater change in PA scores at follow-up.

Weak

Selection bias due to low enrollment, non-blinded outcomes; data collected in one school district could confound results; possible seasonal differences in PA; inconsistent administration of survey data

Rauscher et al. (2013)

See above.

N = 138

Age 8–14

(Mean = 10.5)

Mixed methods, single group, formative evaluation

Inductive content analysis; dependent t-test

Body consciousness, body esteem, nutrition, self-efficacy, attitude toward PA and mentorship

Process: Participants and coaches were uncomfortable with body-conscious conversations, discrepancies between messages sent (need for “good body”) and program goals.

Efficacy: Small but significant effects for pre-post body consciousness and body esteem. Healthy girl was defined as physically active, confident, good looking, thin, fit, strong, and nice.

Weak; lack of methodological coherence

Selection bias; lack of reporting on withdraws; non-blinded outcomes; qualitative data lacked depth

Waldron (2007)

See above.

N = 34 (sub-sample of 8 for qualitative interviews) Mean age = 11.51

Mixed methods, single group

Dependent t-test; grounded theory coding

Perceived competence, program experiences

Efficacy: Small but significant effects for pre-post perceived social competence, perceived physical competence, and perceived physical appearance competence. Qualitative data suggest increases in self-worth, social support, and perceived competence.

Weak; lack of methodological coherence

Single-group study; selection bias; non-blinded outcomes; small sample size; use of grounded theory coding, without grounded theory methodology

Playworks

Beyler et al. (2013); Fortson et al. (2013); London et al. (2013)

See above.

N = 2331 student surveys; N = 296 teacher surveys; N = 1579 accelerometry data

Randomized controlled trial, cross-sectional analysis only (i.e., post-intervention comparison)

Multi-level regression models

Physical activity, school climate, student behavior

Efficacy: Children at Playworks schools had significantly higher levels of: (a) physical activity, (b) teacher-reported safety and inclusion, and (c) student-reported positive behavior and attention in class than those at control schools. Teachers also reported lower levels of bullying and transition difficulty. No differences were reported in youth development, children perceptions of safety, teacher-reported classroom behavior, or academic outcomes

Strong

Single time point measurement; limited accelerometry data

London et al. (2015)

See above.

N = 6 schools. Principal, recess coach, teacher interviews, recess observations at multiple time points, and student focus groups at each school

Qualitative, program evaluation

Grounded theory approach

Recess climate

Efficacy: Playworks implementation resulted in a higher quality recess. Higher-quality recess sessions contained higher levels of students initiating and sustaining games, higher levels of inclusion, higher levels of female participation, more positive language, less conflict and bullying, stronger connection to recess coach, and more teachers on the playground.

Partial methodological coherence; incongruence between study design and analysis techniques (i.e., grounded theory)

Lack of participant descriptions; unclear use of grounded theory methodology/analysis

Madsen et al. (2011)

School-based program in which full-time trained coaches work in schools and teach and coordinate a variety of playground sports and games; work with classroom teachers to provide additional PA opportunities; provide a peer leadership program; and work to generate family and community involvement.

N = 13,109 fifth-grade students

Quantitative, quasi-experimental, retrospective time series

Mixed effects linear regression

Internal and external assets as assessed by the California Healthy Kids Survey

Efficacy: With each additional year of exposure to Playworks, students reported significantly higher scores in PA, meaningful participation in school, problem solving skills, and goal aspirations; effects reported were small but clinically meaningful when considered across time and within the context of percentile rank.

Strong

Retrospective design; lack of control over data collection processes

Massey et al. (2017)

See above.

N = 450 children in observations; N = 21 children in classroom observations;

N = 77 children in focus groups

Mixed methods, quasi-experimental, program evaluation

Repeated measures analysis of variance; factorial ANOVA; interpretive content analysis

Adult-student playground interactions, playground behavior, classroom behavior

Process: Playworks schools had significantly more positive adult-student interactions and significantly less conflict on the playground than a non-intervention comparison.

Efficacy: Classroom data showed those in the peer leadership program improved their behavior relative to a control group.

Moderate, partial methodological coherence

Lack of comparison group at baseline for observations; non-randomized design; small sample for classroom observations; lack of detail on philosophical underpinnings and sampling strategy

Massey et al. (2018)

See above.

N = 77 Playworks Junior Coaches; N = 13 Playworks coaches

Qualitative, program evaluation

Interpretive content analysis

Leadership

Process and Efficacy: Participants discussed various aspects of leadership and how that influenced the decision to become a junior coach, the role of a junior coach, training received, and developmental impacts as a result of the experience.

Partial methodological coherence

Lack of detail on philosophical underpinnings and sampling strategy

The First Tee

Brunelle et al. (2007)

Intervention was a condensed 1-week (5 sessions of 45 min each) version of The First Tee program that combines golf lessons with life skill development.

N = 100

Age 13–17

Quantitative, single group

Repeated measures analysis of covariance; regression analysis

Social responsibility, interpersonal reactivity, social interests, goals, community service

Process: Whether or not individuals completed their community service requirement had a significant effect on empathic concern and social responsibility.

Efficacy: Authors noted significant pre-post (1 week) differences on social responsibility and goal knowledge. Gender and race were shown to moderate outcomes (girls showed greater increases in perspective-taking; being white was more predictive of social interests).

Weak

No true control group; self-report measures; short intervention time-frame; large percentage of loss to follow-up

Weiss et al. (2013)

Intervention consists of a program in which golf and life skills are taught in a systematic and progressive program that addresses interpersonal, self-management, goal setting, and advanced social skills. Program length, duration, or intensity was not reported.

N = 95

Age 11–17

Qualitative, interpretive

Inductive and deductive content analysis

Interpersonal and self-management skills, transfer of skills to other domains

Efficacy: Identified skill development in meeting and greeting others, showing respect, and emotion management within and outside of the program.

Methodological coherence from theory to method to analysis

Philosophical assumptions to study not addressed

Weiss et al. (2016)

See above.

N1 = 564 (405 in First Tee group)

N2 = 192 (Longitudinal sample)

Age 10–17

Quantitative, longitudinal, quasi-experimental

Multivariate analysis of covariance (group difference); latent growth modeling (intervention group only)

 

Efficacy: Data show significant group differences (when controlling for parent education and SES) on 5/8 life skill transfer domains and 6/8 developmental outcome domains. Longitudinal data showed that 3 life skills increased over time (with increased exposure to the program): meeting and greeting, appreciating diversity, and getting help. Those who entered the program with the lowest scores for life skills gained the most improvement over time.

Moderate

Non-blinded outcomes; unclear sampling procedures in Study 1; baseline differences in groups in Study 1

Play It Smart

Petitpas et al. (2004)

Program is grounded in a life skills development framework and implemented through a coordinated effort of academic coaches (working 20 h per week to coordinate), parents, school personnel, and community leaders.

N = 252

Age 14–18

Quantitative, single group, longitudinal

Descriptive statistics

ACT/SAT scores, GPA, community service, self-reported health behaviors

Efficacy: Program participants saw in increase in GPA from 2.16 to 2.64. 98% of seniors in program graduated on time and 83% went to college. Participants engaged in 1745 h of community service.

Weak

Lack of methodological detail to judge the rigor of the data

Van Gorden et al. (2010)

See above.

N = 1361

Qualitative, general

Grounded theory coding

Life skills

Efficacy: Data from exit interviews showed that youth in the program perceived that they developed life schools, had academic and athletic accomplishments, engaged in community service, built relationships with important others, and had a more positive outlook on life.

Lack of methodological coherence

Data from exit interviews that were administered by academic coach; lack of philosophical or methodological underpinning

Urban Squash

Green (2010)

Intervention is an academic sports mentoring program. Participants attend 3 days per week for 3 h each day (90 min of homework, 90 min of squash) across the school year.

N = 46

6th and 7th grade

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Analysis of covariance

Intellectual functioning, academic functioning, academic achievement

Efficacy: No differences reported for academic engagement between groups. Intervention group showed significant improvements in reading and writing but not math. Intervention group reported significantly higher gains in GPA than control group. Achievement status did not moderate results.

Moderate

Small sample; high attrition rate; lack of power for number of analyses

Hemphill & Richards (2016)

See above.

N = 21 youth

N = 13 staff

Youth were in 6th – 8th grade

Qualitative, program evaluation

Descriptive statistics; grounded theory coding

Valued aspects of program, how outcomes may have transferred out of program

Efficacy: Results focused on academic enrichment, academic transfer, relationships, and a focus on personal and social responsibility.

Methodology, sampling and data collection consistent

Lack of philosophical underpinnings to study; use of grounded theory analysis without doing a grounded theory study

Hill (2012)

See above.

N = 111

Age = 11–14

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Repeated measures analysis of variance

Intellectual functioning, academic functioning, academic achievement, social support

Efficacy: No differences found between groups on academic engagement, individual academic skills (math, oral language), or social support. Total academic achievement scale improved slightly for intervention group, but not control group.

Moderate

Lack of specificity in measurement; attrition rate; small sample

Coach Across America

LPHI (2016a; 2016b)

Up2Us Sports is a national coalition of more than 1000 organizations committed to using sports for social change. Striving to harness the power of sports to reduce youth violence and promote health and academic success, Up2Us Sports organizes nationwide community training programs.

Approximately 1000 participants in older group and approximately 1100 in younger group

Mixed methods, quasi-experimental; qualitative general

Analysis of covariance; hierarchical linear regression modeling; content analysis

Fitness, high impact attributes (HIA), self-reported nutrition, coach quality, dose

Process: More time with coaches was related to outcomes, but coach quality was a negative predictor of HIA in younger children.

Efficacy: Results showed program participants significantly improved their fitness level. Data on HIA and nutrition were mixed, with a greater effect for younger participants.

Moderate; lack of methodological coherence

Unclear information on missing data; lack of control for confounding variables

Windham et al. (2014)

See above.

N = 6288

N = 2229 pre-post surveys

Quantitative, single group

Hierarchical linear regression

Self-reported physical activity, self-reported nutrition behaviors, HIA

Efficacy: Significant effects reported for increased PA. Results on nutrition and HIA were mixed (improvements on 2/6 nutrition items; improvements on 2/8 HIA).

Weak

Large amounts of missing data; no information on reliability or validity of measures; unclear blinding procedures

Doc Wayne

D’Andrea et al. (2013)

This intervention took place within a trauma treatment facility. Coaches were trained to deliver trauma-sensitive sports, and the sport program took place once per week, for 1 hour, over a 5-month period.

N = 88

Age = 12–21

Quantitative, quasi-experimental

Repeated measures analysis of variance

Behavior within the program, mental health

Efficacy: Significant effects for restraints, timeouts needed, internalizing behavior, and externalizing behavior were reported in favor of the treatment group.

Weak

Likely selection bias; unclear description of control for possible confounding variables; unclear blinding procedures; lack of reliability reported for observational measures

Program Evaluation Report (n.d.)

Trauma-informed sport league for youth in residential treatment. Timing, duration, and dosage not reported.

N = 53

Quantitative, single group

Pre-post effect sizes

Life goals, social conflicts, emotional regulation, behavior, stress, challenges

Efficacy: Compared to youth not in the sport league, those in the sport league reported less personal distress and more perspective taking, higher levels of emotional regulation, higher social cognition, and higher heart rate variability.

Weak

Likely selection bias; unclear description of control for possible confounding variables; unclear blinding procedures; lack of reliability reported for observational measures; missing data

Sport Hartford

Bruening et al. (2015)

Mentor-based program that incorporated sport, physical activity, nutrition, and life skills. Sessions were twice a week for 2 hours over a 28-week period.

N = 5

Age = 12–15

Qualitative, general

Deductive analysis

Factors that influence program outcomes

Process: Active participation and planning, connection to community, sense of belonging, trust, information channels, norms, and sanctions.

Coherence between theory, method, and analysis

Lack of philosophical underpinnings

Bruening et al. (2009)

Mentor-based program that incorporated sport, physical activity, nutrition, and life skills. Sessions were once a week for 2 hours over a 12-week period.

N = 8

Age = 9–13

Qualitative, multiple case study

Unclear

Behavior change, views of self, views on health

Efficacy: Results discussed feelings of self-esteem and self-worth, accountability and responsibility, connection to community, sense of belonging, knowledge and acquisition of health and life skills, application of skills, and planning and recognizing one’s influence on self and others.

Lack of methodological coherence

Age and developmental ranges of participants; lack of philosophical underpinnings, theory, and specific analytical procedures

Fuller et al. (2013)

Mentor-based program that incorporated sport, physical activity, nutrition, and life skills. Sessions were once a week for 2 hours over 2 12-week periods.

N = 8

Age = 10–14

Qualitative, methodology not explicitly reported

Deductive analysis

Program evaluation

Process: Results discussed reasons for initial participation (curiosity, excitement, opportunity to play sports) and reasons for continued participation (fun, field trips, novelty and exposure, stayed out of trouble).

Efficacy: Results also discussed positive developmental outcomes (confidence, connection, character, contribution).

Coherence between theory, method, and analysis

Three of 8 participants were brothers; lack of philosophical underpinning; deductive analytic procedures

  1. While 61 articles are listed in this table, 5 studies were presented in multiple publications (e.g., dissertation and peer-reviewed article, full report and brief report); thus, these were considered duplicate documents