Table 1 Strategies for bending science: categories and examples

Shaping science:

Creating research to fit one’s needs; e.g. manipulating study design, research data and methods

Hiding science:

Concealing unwelcome information, e.g. pharmaceutical industry hiding results from own research, demonstrating adverse effects of their products

Attacking science:

These strategies are often in terms of ‘post-publication damage control’, particularly targeting policy-makers and the public, attacking study methods creating doubt about study validity:

a) Turning reliable research into ‘junk’; e.g. claim research as ‘fatally flawed’ based on limited scientific grounds and voiced by hired experts

b) illegitimate obfuscatory attacks; e.g. raising hypothetical charges about research design that are not supportable and not easily refuted;

c) unbalanced attacks; e.g. allied attack where third parties without industry connection (think tanks) are engaged on the industry friendly side.

Harrassing scientists

a) Challenge integrity of researchers, e.g. as publicized attacks

b) Draining resources through lawsuits or unreasonable and burdensome demands for data and documents

Packaging science

Assembling expert group to advance favoured outcome, e.g. by commissioning publications summarizing the state of science, which ignores or belittles unwelcome research.

Spinning science

Manipulating public perceptions about credible science, e.g. campaigns to generate pressure on decision-makers to discount it.