Table 2 Bivariate associations between Carstairs index and physical environment variables (N = 4929 neighborhoods)

Sulphur dioxide (SO₂, μg/m³)^a

0.33

0.02

0.29, 0.37

Particulate matter (PM₁₀, μg/m³)^a

0.32

0.02

0.28, 0.36

Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂, mg/m³)^a

0.11

0.01

0.10, 0.12

Carbon monoxide (CO, μg/m³)^a

24.51

0.65

23.22, 25.79

%Green space

−0.055

0.001

−0.058, − 0.052

Proximity to industrial facilities^b

1.01

0.24

0.54, 1.48