Table 3 Measures of association and variation between individual- and community-level factors and childhood anemia
Characteristic | Malawi | Mozambique | Namibia | Zimbabwe |
|---|---|---|---|---|
aOR 95% (CI)/p | aOR 95% (CI)/p | aOR 95% (CI)/p | aOR 95% (CI)/p | |
Exposure variable | ||||
Maternal anemic status | ||||
Nonanemic | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Anemic | 1.69 (1.35–2.12)a | 1.71 (1.37–2.13)a | 1.55 (1.08–2.22)c | 1.52 (1.25–1.84)a |
Maternal Hb concentration | 0.64 (0.55–0.55)a | 0.67 (0.58–0.78)a | 0.70 (0.54–0.91)b | 0.75 (0.65–0.86)a |
Individual-level | ||||
Biofuel smoke exposureβ | ||||
No | NA | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA |
Yes | NA | 0.93 (0.50–1.73) | 0.92 (0.58–1.45) | NA |
Sex of child | ||||
Male | 1.00 | NA | 1.00 | NA |
Female | 0.93 (0.78–1.11) | NA | 0.76 (0.59–0.99)a | NA |
Child age in months | ||||
6–11 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
12–23 | 0.28 (0.17–0.44)a | 0.58 (0.39–0.88)a | 1.08 (0.70–1.69) | 0.99 (0.74–1.33) |
24–35 | 0.17 (0.11–0.27)a | 0.36 (0.24–0.54)a | 0.51 (0.33–0.79)b | 0.46 (0.35–0.62)a |
36–47 | 0.12 (0.07–0.19)a | 0.30 (0.20–0.46)a | 0.31 (0.20–0.49)a | 0.31 (0.23–0.42)a |
48–59 | 0.09 (0.06–0.15)a | 0.22 (0.14–0.33)a | 0.26 (0.16–0.43)a | 0.25 (0.18–0.34)a |
Recent episodes of fever | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.57 (1.29–1.90)a | 1.68 (1.19–2.37)a | 1.25 (0.93–1.68) | 1.09 (0.84–1.43) |
Recent episodes of diarrhea | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 0.95 (0.73–1.24) | 1.07 (0.74–1.55) | 1.21 (0.86–1.70) | 1.07 (0.84–1.35) |
Children are stunted | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.33 (1.10–1.61)b | 1.49 (1.17–1.89)a | 1.50 (1.05–2.15)c | 1.17 (0.97–1.42) |
Children are underweight | ||||
No | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Yes | 1.22 (0.91–1.62) | 1.19 (0.84–1.69) | 0.65 (0.42–1.02) | 1.26 (0.94–1.69) |
Mother’s age in years | ||||
15–24 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
25–34 | 0.92 (0.75–1.14) | 0.90 (0.69–1.16) | 0.70 (0.51–0.95)c | 0.89 (0.74–1.08) |
35–49 | 0.96 (0.74–1.25) | 0.92 (0.68–1.24) | 0.66 (0.46–0.95)c | 0.83 (0.65–1.06) |
Mother’s educational level | ||||
No education | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA |
Primary | 0.87 (0.66–1.13) | 1.09 (0.85–1.40) | 0.82 (0.46–1.45) | NA |
Secondary and above | 0.73 (0.50–1.06) | 0.66 (0.42–1.04) | 0.83 (0.47–1.44) | NA |
Household wealth index | ||||
Poorest | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Poor | 0.88 (0.50–1.06) | 0.89 (0.64–1.25) | 1.53 (1.01–2.30)c | 0.96 (0.75–1.22) |
Middle | 0.96 (0.73–1.27) | 0.80 (0.56–1.13) | 1.09 (0.72–1.66) | 0.82 (0.64–1.06) |
Richer | 0.81 (0.60–1.08) | 0.84 (0.56–1.27) | 1.08 (0.62–1.88) | 0.91 (0.67–1.23) |
Richest | 0.69 (0.48–0.99)c | 0.68 (0.38–1.24) | 0.74 (0.36–1.53) | 0.76 (0.53–1.11) |
Community-level (clusters) | ||||
Community maternal anemia† | ||||
Low anemia | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
High anemia | 1.19 (0.93–1.54) | 1.52 (1.19–1.94)a | 1.478 (0.97–2.25) | 0.778 (0.63–1.03) |
Place of residence | ||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Rural | 1.07 (0.71–1.60) | 1.14 (0.80–1.63) | 0.87 (0.61–1.25) | 0.78 (0.58–1.03) |
Community wealth†† | ||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA |
High | 0.91 (0.69–1.19) | 0.78 (0.53–1.14) | 0.84 (0.53–1.34) | NA |
Community female education§ | ||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA |
High | 0.82 (0.65–1.03) | 1.14 (0.83–1.55) | 0.801 (0.50–1.29) | NA |
Community distance to HF¥ | ||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA |
High | 1.33 (1.07–1.65)b | 0.98 (0.73–1.33) | 0.99 (0.72–1.36) | NA |
Community safe water access‡ | ||||
Low | 1.00 | 1.00 | NA | 1.00 |
High | 0.90 (0.72–1.12) | 0.78 (0.57–1.07) | NA | 0.91 (0.73–1.14) |
Measures of variation or clustering | ||||
Community level | ||||
[τ(SE)]♀ | 0.193 (0.084)c | 0.418 (0.120)a | 0.157 (0.126) | 0.086 (0.048)c |
[τ(SE)] | 0.056 (0.080) | 0.280 (0.114)b | 0.070 (0.129) | 0.064 (0.050) |
MORð | 1.52 | 1.85 | 1.46 | 1.32 |
MOR | 1.25 | 1.66 | 1.29 | 1.27 |
ICC (%) ¶ | 5.54 | 11.27 | 4.55 | 2.55 |
ICC (%) | 1.68 | 7.84 | 2.09 | 1.90 |
PCV⁑ (%) | 70.94 | 32.98 | 55.31 | 26.07 |
Model fit statistics | ||||
DIC (−2log likelihood) | 2935.72 | 2220.25 | 1397.00 | 3282.89 |