Table 1 Sample characteristics of childhood anemia for the four selected Southern African countries
Characteristic | Malawi | Mozambique | Namibia | Zimbabwe |
|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 2507 | N = 1933 | N = 1116 | N = 2578 | |
n* (%)** | n* (%)** | n* (%)** | n* (%)** | |
Childhood anemia (%) | 63.8 | 70.0 | 49.4 | 58.6 |
Exposure variable | ||||
Maternal anemic status | ||||
Nonanemic | 1850 (73.3) | 934 (46.6) | 908 (80.2) | 1898 (74.9) |
Anemic | 657 (26.7) | 999 (53.4) | 208 (19.8) | 680 (25.1) |
Individual-level | ||||
Biofuel smoke exposureβ | ||||
No | 17 (0.8) | 91 (2.9) | 352 (34.3) | 552 (21.0) |
Yes | 2490 (99.2) | 1842 (97.1) | 764 (65.7) | 2026 (79.0) |
Sex of child | ||||
Male | 1253 (48.9) | 929 (48.5) | 533 (47.3) | 1299 (49.9) |
Female | 1254 (51.1) | 1004 (51.5) | 583 (52.7) | 1279 (50.1) |
Child age in months | ||||
6–11 | 268 (11.4) | 247 (13.2) | 153 (14.3) | 394 (14.8) |
12–23 | 616 (25.1) | 502 (26.0) | 294 (25.1) | 628 (23.9) |
24–35 | 579 (22.2) | 459 (23.3) | 253 (22.4) | 627 (24.8) |
36–47 | 586 (23.0) | 377 (19.9) | 234 (21.0) | 509 (20.5) |
48–59 | 458 (18.3) | 348 (17.6) | 182 (17.2) | 420 (16.0) |
Child’s birth order | ||||
1 | 498 (20.8) | 472 (23.8) | 351 (32.6) | 832(32.1) |
2 | 437 (17.8) | 347 (17.3) | 278 (25.2) | 680 (26.1) |
3 | 405 (16.2) | 284 (14.2) | 177 (16.1) | 449 (17.9) |
4+ | 1167 (45.2) | 830 (44.7) | 310 (26.1) | 617 (23.9) |
Recent episodes of fever | ||||
No | 1590 (62.5) | 1658 (84.7) | 310 (70.5) | 2285 (88.4) |
Yes | 917 (37.5) | 275 (15.3) | 329 (29.5) | 293 (11.6) |
Recent episodes of diarrhea | ||||
No | 2084 (83.5) | 1709 (87.3) | 868 (76.5) | 2158 (83.0) |
Yes | 423 (16.5) | 224 (12.7) | 248 (23.5) | 420 (17.0) |
Children are stunted | ||||
No | 1303 (51.2) | 1062 (50.7) | 855 (77.2) | 1690 (65.5) |
Yes | 1204 (48.8) | 871 (49.3) | 261 (22.8) | 888 (34.5) |
Children are underweight | ||||
No | 2179 (86.8) | 1657 (84.0) | 976 (87.2) | 2304 (89.9) |
Yes | 328 (13.2) | 276 (16.0) | 140 (12.8) | 274 (10.1) |
Mother’s age in years | ||||
15–24 | 773 (31.1) | 630 (32.8) | 337 (28.0) | 870 (33.8) |
25–34 | 1182 (46.6) | 817 (41.0) | 477(44.7) | 1227 (46.9) |
35–49 | 552 (22.3) | 486 (26.2) | 302 (27.3) | 481 (19.3) |
Mother’s educational level | ||||
No education | 423 (17.6) | 740 (40.2) | 86 (5.9) | 60 (2.3) |
Primary | 1778 (70.5) | 993 (52.4) | 261 (22.8) | 848 (32.1) |
Secondary and above | 306 (11.9) | 200 (7.4) | 769 (71.3) | 1670 (65.6) |
Total children ever born | ||||
1 | 361 (15.0) | 374 (19.1) | 312 (29.2) | 703 (27.0) |
2 | 451 (18.6) | 348 (17.5) | 286 (26.1) | 723 (28.0) |
3 | 426 (17.6) | 305 (14.8) | 190 (17.0) | 486 (19.4) |
4 | 403 (14.6) | 262 (13.8) | 115 (9.7) | 308 (11.7) |
5+ | 866 (34.2) | 644 (34.8) | 213 (18.0) | 358 (13.9) |
Household wealth index | ||||
Poorest | 484 (18.7) | 431 (28.0) | 247 (23.7) | 676 (24.4) |
Poor | 623 (25.8) | 445 (25.3) | 244 (21.7) | 562 (22.3) |
Middle | 610 (23.9) | 406 (20.5) | 235 (19.2) | 501 (20.4) |
Richer | 509 (19.3) | 415 (18.5) | 248 (21.5) | 514 (20.2) |
Richest | 281 (12.5) | 236 (7.7) | 142 (13.9) | 325 (12.7) |
Community-level (clusters) | ||||
Place of residence | ||||
Urban | 159 (8.2) | 407 (17.8) | 480 (44.5) | 633 (25.1) |
Rural | 2348 (91.8) | 1526 (82.2) | 636 (55.5) | 1945 (74.9) |
Community maternal anemia† | ||||
Low anemia | 2020 (79.3) | 846 (41.4) | 967 (884.2) | 2010 (75.7) |
High anemia | 487 (20.7) | 1087 (58.6) | 149 (15.8) | 568 (24.3) |
Community parity∫ | ||||
Low | 913 (38.7) | 711 (30.8) | 860 (79.1) | 1171 (45.3) |
High | 1594 (61.3) | 1222 (69.2) | 256 (20.9) | 1407 (52.7) |
Community wealth†† | ||||
Low | 2041 (79.7) | 1328 (76.7) | 794 (69.8) | 1753 (67.8) |
High | 466 (20.3) | 605 (23.3) | 322 (30.1) | 825 (32.2) |
Community female education§ | ||||
Low | 585 (24.4) | 1230 (66.5) | 127 (7.8) | 594 (22.8) |
High | 1922 (75.6) | 703 (33.5) | 989 (92.2) | 1984 (77.2) |
Community distance to HF¥ | ||||
Low | 686 (30.1) | 672 (28.7) | 682 (62.9) | 1031 (41.0) |
High | 1821 (69.9) | 1261 (71.3) | 434 (37.1) | 1547 (59.0) |
Community safe water access‡ | ||||
Low | 619 (26.3) | 1336 (75.6) | 434 (19.4) | 497 (19.3) |
High | 1888 (73.7) | 597 (24.4) | 922 (80.6) | 2081 (80.7) |