Declining rates of health problems associated with crack smoking during the expansion of crack pipe distribution in Vancouver, Canada

Table 2 Bivariable and multivariable GEE analyses of reporting health problems associated with crack smoking among crack smokers in Vancouver, Canada (n = 1718)

Characteristic	Unadjusted		Adjusted
	Odds Ratio (95% CI)	p-value	Odds Ratio (95% CI)	p-value
Source
Health service point only vs. Other sources only	0.70 (0.63–0.79)	<0.001	0.82 (0.73–0.93)	<0.001
A mix of health source points and other sources vs. Other sources only	1.23 (1.06–1.43)	0.006	1.17 (1.00–1.36)	0.051
Age
(per year older)	0.97 (0.96–0.98)	<0.001	0.99 (0.98–0.99)	0.002
Sex
(female vs. male)	1.37 (1.20–1.56)	<0.001	1.31 (1.15–1.50)	<0.001
Ethnicity
(Caucasian vs. other)	1.00 (0.88–1.14)	0.994
Less than high school diploma achieved
(yes vs. no)	0.99 (0.87–1.13)	0.923
DTES residency^a
(yes vs. no)	1.24 (1.11–1.40)	<0.001	1.09 (0.96–1.22)	0.178
Homelessness^a
(yes vs. no)	1.34 (1.22–1.48)	<0.001
Daily non-injection crack smoking^a
(yes vs. no)	1.68 (1.53–1.84)	<0.001	1.29 (1.16–1.42)	<0.001
Daily non-injection meth use^a
(yes vs. no)	1.14 (0.72–1.81)	0.582
Binge non-injection drug use^a
(yes vs. no)	1.64 (1.51–1.79)	<0.001	1.53 (1.40–1.67)	<0.001
Shared crack pipe ^a
(yes vs. no)	2.07 (1.88–2.28)	<0.001	1.73 (1.56–1.91)	<0.001
Rushed public crack smoking^a
(yes vs. no)	1.86 (1.66–2.08)	<0.001
Drug dealing^a
(yes vs. no)	1.66 (1.50–1.83)	<0.001	1.25 (1.12–1.39)	<0.001
Sex work^a
(yes vs. no)	1.95 (1.70–2.23)	<0.001
A victim of violence^a
(yes vs. no)	1.69 (1.52–1.88)	<0.001	1.47 (1.31–1.64)	<0.001
Incarceration^a
(yes vs. no)	1.56 (1.37–1.77)	<0.001
HIV positive
(yes vs. no)	1.06 (0.93–1.21)	0.359

GEE generalized estimating equations, PWID People who inject drugs, CI confidence interval, DTES Downtown Eastside
^a Denotes activities in the previous 6 months

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