Table 1 Sample characteristics and differences by place of residence (N = 353)

Maternal age (years), mean, ± SD (n = 347)

29.4 ± 6.9

29.0 ± 6.5

29.7 ± 7.3

.074

Education (years), mean, ± SD

5.7 ± 3.8

4.3 ± 3.1

7.1 ± 4.0

< .001

Total # persons in household, mean, ± SD

5.8 ± 2.0

6.1 ± 2.1

5.4 ± 1.8

.037

Crowding (# persons/# rooms), mean, ± SD

2.6 ± 1.6

2.8 ± 1.8

2.4 ± 1.3

.022

n (%)

n (%)

n (%)

Marital status

.051

 Married

334 (94.9)

174 (97.8)

160 (92.0)

 Other

18 (5.1)

4 (2.2)

14 (8.0)

Currently pregnant

31 (8.8)

16 (8.9)

15 (8.6)

ns

Ethnicity (tribal association)

< .001

 Sidama

251 (71.5)

167 (93.8)

84 (48.6)

 Amhara

58 (16.5)

6 (3.4)

52 (30.1)

 Gurage

20 (5.7)

2 (1.1)

18 (10.4)

 Oromo

14 (4.0)

3 (1.7)

11 (6.4)

 Other

8 (2.3)

1 (0.0)

8 (4.6)

Religious affiliation, type

< .001

 Protestant

278 (79.2)

174 (97.8)

104 (60.1)

 Orthodox Christian

61 (17.4)

3 (1.7)

58 (33.5)

 Muslim

10 (2.8)

0 (0)

10 (5.8)

 Catholic

2 (0.6)

1 (0.6)

1 (0.6)

 “Multidimensionally poor” households^a

48 (13.6)

37 (20.7)

11 (6.3)

<.001

  No one in household completed 5 years schooling

38 (11.3)

29 (16.6)

9 (5.6)

.002

  School-age child not enrolled in grade 1 to 8

31 (8.8)

22 (12.4)

9 (5.2)

.018

  Child death (< 5 years of age)

107 (30.3)

56 (31.3)

51 (29.3)

ns

  No electricity

71 (20.1)

57 (31.8)

14 (8.0)

<.001

  Limited access to clean drinking water^c

85 (24.1)

50 (27.9)

35 (20.1)

.055

  No toilet or improved latrine

64 (18.1)

16 (8.9)

48 (27.6)

<.001

  Dirt, sand or dung flooring in dwelling

150 (42.5)

117 (65.4)

33 (19.0)

<.001

  Cook with biomass fuel (wood, charcoal, or dung)

352 (99.7)

178 (99.4)

174 (100)

ns

  Assets^d

244 (69.1)

153 (85.5)

91 (52.3)

<.001

Type of house

<.001

 Rented, leased or borrowed

91 (25.8)

4 (2.2)

87 (50.0)

 Owned

262 (74.2)

175 (97.8)

87 (50.0)

 Composite HDM score^e, mean ± SD

1.7 ± 1.2

1.5 ± 1.2

2.0 ± 1.1

<.001