Table 2 Summary of included quantitative studies (n = 18)
First author (year) Publication type | Study design | Country | Type of schools | Sample size (baseline) | Sample characteristics | Intervention group (duration) | Comparison or control group | Outcomes (health and well-being only) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Block (2012)a [24] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | Australia | Primary | 764 children (reported as 770 in Block et al. 2009) 562 parents | 8–12 years 54 % girls | Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden Program (45–60 min in garden class & 90 min in kitchen class/week for 12+ mnths) | No intervention (but Gibbs et al. reported that some children were exposed to some gardening and cooking activities) | Child quality of life |
Block (2009)a [25] Report | Willingness to try new foods | |||||||
Gibbs (2013)a [26] Journal paper | Willingness to try new foods Food and beverage intakes including FV | |||||||
Brouwer (2013) [27] Journal paper | Cluster RCT | USA | Pre-school | 12 children | 3–5 years | Watch Me Grow (weekly activities for four months) | No intervention (delayed) | FV served and consumed |
Christian (2014) (1) [28] Journal paper: Trial 1 | Cluster RCT | UK | Primary | 1138 children (reported as 1256 in the journal paper) | For two groups respectively: Mean 8.2/8.1Â year 50/51Â % boys 30/35Â % White British (diverse) | Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) led gardening activities (18Â months with regular support visits and termly teacher training sessions from RHS) | Teacher led gardening activities (18Â months with termly teacher training sessions from RHS) | Vegetable intake Fruit intake Food group and essential nutrient intakes |
Christian (2014) (2) [9] Report: Trial 1 | As above plus: FV knowledge Attitudes towards FV | |||||||
Christian (2014) (2) [10] Report: Trial 2 | Cluster RCT | UK | Primary | 1391 children | For two groups respectively: Mean 8.3/8.2Â years 52/48Â % boys 23/17Â % White British (diverse) | Teacher led gardening activities (15Â months with termly teacher training sessions from RHS) | No intervention | Vegetable intake Fruit intake Food group and essential nutrient intakes FV knowledge Attitudes towards FV |
Cotter (2013) [22] Journal paper | Cluster RCT | Portugal | NR | 155 | 10–12 years | Aromas school gardening club (2 h/week for 6 months) plus regular lectures on the dangers of high salt intake | Regular lectures on the dangers of high salt intake | Body Mass Index (BMI) Waist circumference Blood pressure (SBP/DBP) Urinary sodium Urinary creatinine Estimated salt intake |
Wells (2014) [23] Journal paper | Cluster RCT | USA | Elementary | 285 | 8–12 years | Healthy Gardens, Healthy Youth pilot program: gardening activities plus curriculum of 20 lessons (1 year) | No intervention (control group received gardens at the end of the study) | Physical activity |
Cotugna (2012) [27] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 359 | Age or gender not reported; For A/B/C respectively: 73/41/37Â % White 37/34/38Â % low income | Gardening education program (duration unknown) first time in School B and second time in School C | No intervention (School A) | Students who chose salad for lunch |
Davis (2011) [28] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 107 (reported as 104 in Davis et al. 2011) | 9–11 years 59 % overweight or obese For two groups respectively: Mean 9.7/9.9 years 38/59 % boys 97/93 % Latino | LA Sprouts: cooking and nutrition lessons plus gardening activities (90 min per week for 12 weeks) | No intervention | Body Mass Index (BMI) Waist circumference Total body fat Blood pressure (SBP/DBP) Vegetable intake Fruit intake Food group and macronutrient intakes |
Gatto (2012) [29] Journal paper | Motivation to eat FV Attitudes, preferences and perceptions relating to cooking FV | |||||||
Jaenke (2012) [15] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | Australia | Primary | 127 | Fifth and sixth grade students 11–12 years 54 % boys | Nutrition education: How do you grow? (3 h over 10 weeks) plus gardening: How does your garden grow? (180 min per week for 10 weeks) | Nutrition education only: How do you grow? (3 h over 10 weeks) No intervention | Willingness to taste vegetables Taste ratings of vegetables Fruit intake Vegetable intake |
Morgan (2010) [30] Journal paper | Fruit intake Vegetable intake Ability to identify vegetables Willingness to taste vegetables Taste ratings of vegetables FV knowledge Quality of school life | |||||||
McAleese (2007) [16] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 122 | 10–13 years Mean 11.1 years 44 % boys | Nutrition education: Nutrition in the garden, plus gardening (12 weeks) | Nutrition education only: Nutrition in the garden (12 weeks) No intervention | Fruit intake Vegetable intake Vitamin A intake Vitamin C intake Fibre intake |
Meinen (2012) [31] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary schools and early childhood sites | 404 youth 567 parents | 7–13 years 54 % boys For two groups respectively: Mean 9.9/10.1 years Majority/88 % White | Youth gardening program: Got Dirt? (4 months) | No intervention | Willingness to try new FV Like/dislike of FV Knowledge of FV FV consumption |
Morris (2001) [32] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 97 | First grade students | Nutrition education plus gardening (8Â months) | No intervention | Nutrition knowledge Willingness to taste vegetables Taste ratings of vegetables |
Morris (2002) (1) [33] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Upper elementary | 215 (reported as 213 in journal paper) | 9–10 years 8.4 % African American 3.0 % Asian American 17.2 % Hispanic 66.5 % White | In-class nutrition education including hands-on gardening activities (9 lessons over 17 weeks) | In-class nutrition education only (9 lessons over 17 weeks) No intervention | Nutrition knowledge Vegetable preference |
Morris (2002) (2) [34] Report | ||||||||
O’Brien (2006) [35] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 38 | 9–10 years 50 % boys 71 % White | After school gardening club (8 lessons with 30 min gardening over 10 weeks) | No intervention | Nutrition knowledge FV preference FV consumption self-efficacy FV consumption expectations |
Parmer (2009) [37] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 115 | 70Â % boys For three groups mean respectively: 7.3/7.5/7.4Â years 46/27/28Â % girls | Nutrition education plus gardening (1Â h alternating nutrition education and gardening for 28Â weeks) | Nutrition education only (1Â h every other week for 28Â weeks) No intervention | FV knowledge FV preferences FV consumption |
Parmer (2007) [36] Dissertation | ||||||||
Ratcliffe (2011) [38] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Middle | 320 | 11–13 years 22 % African American 29 % Asian American 9 % Filipino American 30 % Latino 3 % Pacific Islander 7 % White or other 35 % overweight 64 % low income | Garden-based learning activities integrated into science class (20 min instruction and 40 min hands-on gardening per week for 4 months) | Covered the same health and science objectives but did not include a gardening program | Vegetable knowledge Vegetables preferences Willingness to taste Vegetable consumption |
Robinson (2005) [39] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary | 281 | Third, fourth and fifth grade students (no further info) | School gardening curriculum: Texas Agricultural Extension Service (varied intensity over one school year) | No intervention (until after study period) | Life skills: working with groups; self-understanding; leadership; decision making; communication; volunteerism |
Waliczek (2001) [17] Journal paper | Non-randomised controlled | USA | Elementary and junior high | 589 | 8–15 years 43 % boys at post-test | Project GREEN school garden program (Spring semester) | No intervention | Interpersonal relationships |