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Table 2 Summary of epidemiologic studies of risk and protective factors for cognitive outcomes included in the review

From: Epidemiologic studies of modifiable factors associated with cognition and dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Study design

Sample size

Outcomes

Findings

(1) Education

Hypothesis: Lower education is associated with lower cognitive function or higher rate of cognitive decline or increased risk of dementia(including AD)

[21]

65+/B

1990

China

Cross-sectional

N = 5,055

Prevalent AD and dementia

+

[22]

Mean:58.5/B

1991

Nigeria

Cross-sectional

N = 1,350

Cognitive function

+

[23]

65+/B

1992

France

Cross-sectional

N = 2,792

Cognitive function

+

[24]

68-77/B

1992

Finland

Cross-sectional

N = 403

Cognitive function

+

[25]

65+/B

1993

US

Cohort

N = 4,485

Cognitive decline

+

[26]

75+/B

1994

England

Cohort

N = 1,195

Indicent dementia

0

[27]

65+/B

1994

US

Cohort

N = 10,294

Incident cognitive impairment

+

[28]

55+/B

1995

US

Cohort

N = 3,330

Incident AD and VaD

+(VaD)

[29]

18+/B

1995

US

Cohort

N = 14,883

Indicent dementia

+

[9]

55-106/B

1995

The Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 7,528

Prevalent dementia, AD and VaD

+

[30]

65+/B

1996

US

Cross-sectional

N = 2,212

Prevalent dementia and cognitive impairment

+

[31]

68-78/B

1996

Finland

Cross-sectional

N = 403

Cognitive decline

+

[32]

70+/B

1997

Australia

Cohort

N = 652

Cognitive decline

+

[33]

65+/B

1997

US

Cohort

N = 642

Incident AD

+

[34]

50-80/B

1997

Austria

Cross-sectional

N = 1,927

Cognitive function

+

[35]

Mean:75/M

1997

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 528

Cognitive decline

+

[36]

69-74/M

1997

Sweden

Cross-sectional

N = 504

Cognitive function

+

[37]

55-84/B

1997

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 5,825

Cognitive function, decline and incident/prevalent dementia

+

[38]

65-84/B

1997

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 2,063

Incident dementia

+(IQ better predcitor)

[39]

47-68/B

1998

US

Cross-sectional

N = 14,000

Cognitive function

+

[40]

60+/B

1998

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 495

Prevalent dementia

0

[41]

65+/B

1998

Taiwan

Cross-sectional

N = 2,915

Prevalent dementia, AD and VaD

+(AD)

[42]

18+/B

1999

US

Cohort

N = 1,488

Cognitive decline

+

[43]

65+/B

1999

France

Cohort

N = 3,675

Incident AD

+

[44]

55-106/B

1999

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 6,827

Incident dementia

+(women)

[45]

85+/B

2000

Sweden

Cohort

N = 494

Cognitive decline and function

+

[46]

75+/B

2001

Sweden

Cohort

N = 1,296

Incident dementia and AD

+

[47]

65+/B

2002

Spain

Cohort

N = 557

Cognitive decline

+

[48]

70+/B

2002

US

Cross-sectional

N = 6,577

Cognitive function

+

[49]

65+/B

2002

Brazil

Cross-sectional

N = 1,656

Prevalent dementia and AD

+

[50]

65+/B

2002

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 1,016

Prevalent AD and VaD

+

[51]

45-59/M

2002

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,839

Cognitive function

+

[52]

70-79/W

2003

US

Cohort

N = 19,319

Cognitive function and decline

+

[53]

70-79/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 4,030

Cognitive decline

+(ApoE-)

[54]

66+/W

2006

US

Cohort

N = 6,314

Cognitive function and decline

+

[55]

Mean age: ~75/B

2006

US

Cohort

N = 2,786

Incident dementia

+(both whites and blacks)

[56]

55+/B

2006

China

Cross-sectional

N = 34,807

Prevalent AD and VaD

+(AD)

[57]

50+/B

2006

China

Cross-sectional

N = 16,095

Prevalent dementia and AD

+

[58]

65+/B

2007

Guam

Cross-sectional

N = 2,789

Prevalent dementia and AD

+

[59]

64-81/B

2007

The Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 578

Cognitive function

+

[60]

60-64/B

2009

Australia

Cohort

N = 416

Cognitive decline

0

[61]

30-64/B

2009

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,345

Cognitive function

+(literacy better predictor)

[62]

65-96/B

2009

Spain

Cross-sectional

N = 1,074

Prevalent dementia

+

[63]

80+/B

2009

UK

Cohort

N = 3,336

Incident dementia

+

[64]

Mean:72/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 6,000

Cognitive function and decline

+(cognitive function) 0(cognitive decline)

[65]

60+/B

2010

Malaysa

Cross-sectional

N = 2,980

Prevalent dementia

+

[66]

55+/B

2010

India

Cross-sectional

N = 2,466

Prevalent dementia and AD

+

[67]

65+/B

2010

Brazil

Cross-sectional

N = 2,003

Cognitive function

+

[68]

60+/B

2011

Brazil

Cohort

N = 1,461

Cognitive decline

-

[69]

60-98/B

2011

Italy

Cohort

N = 1,270

Incident cognitive impairment

+

[70]

60+/B

2011

Mexico

Cohort

N = 7,000

Prevalent and incident dementia

+

[71]

54-95/B

2011

US

Cohort

N = 1,014

Cognitive decline

0

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(2) Behavioral

       

(2.1.) Smoking

Hypothesis: Current or ever smoking status is associated with lower cognitive function or higher rate of cognitive decline or increased risk of dementia(including AD)

[72]

65+/B

1993

US

Cohort

N = 1,201

Cognitive decline

0

[73]

65+/B

1994

France

Cross-sectional

N = 3,770

Prevalent AD, cognitive impairment

0

[74]

74+/B

1996

US

Cohort

N = 647

Cognitive function

0

[75]

Mean:58.6/M

1997

US

Cohort

N = 3,429

Cognitive impairment

+

[36]

69-74/M

1997

Sweden

cross-sectional

N = 504

Cognitive function

+

[76]

75+/B

1998

Australia

Cohort

N = 327

Incident dementia and AD

0

[77]

adults/B

1998

US

Cohort

N = 1,469

Cognitive function

0

[78]

55+/B

1998

US

Cohort

N = 6,870

Incident dementia and AD

+(ApoE4)

[79]

56-69/M

1999

US

Cross-sectional

N = 569

Cognitive impairment

+(ApoE4)

[80]

45-59/M

1999

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 1,870

Cognitive function

0

[81]

65+/B

2000

UK

Cohort

N = 889

Cognitive Impairment

+

[82]

Mean: 81/M

2000

UK

Cohort

N = 34,439

Definite or probable AD

0

[83]

45-70/B

2002

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,927

Cognitive change

+

[84]

65+/B

2003

Taiwan

Cohort

N = 798

Cognitive decline

0

[85]

43-53/B

2003

UK

Cohort

N = 3,035

Cognitive decline

+

[86]

Mean:78/M

2003

US

Cohort

N = 3,734

Incident AD

+

[87]

60+/B

2003

China

Cross-sectional

N = 3,012

Cognitive impairment

+

[88]

60+/B

2004

China

Cohort

N = 2,820

Incident dementia and AD

+

[89]

65+/B

2004

European cohorts

Cohort

N = 17,610

Cognitive decline

+

[90]

65-84/B

2004

Italy

Cohort

N = 5,632

Mild cognitive impairment

0

[91]

40-80/M

2004

The Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 900

Cognitive function

0

[92]

Mean:75/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 791

Cognitive function and decline

+(75 + and ApoE4)

[93]

40-44/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 8,845

Incident dementia

+

[94]

50+/B

2006

UK

Cohort

N = 2,000

Cognitive function

+

[95]

55+/B

2007

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 6,868

Incident dementia and AD

+

[96]

43-70/B

2008

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,964

Cognitive decline

+

[97]

35-55/B

2008

France

Cohort

N = 4,659

Cognitive function

+(memory)

[98]

46-70/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 11,151

Incident dementia

+

[99]

65+/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 1,557

Cognitive decline

+

[100]

90-108/B

2009

China

Cross-sectional

N = 681

Cognitive impairment

+(men)

[63]

Mean:83.5/B

2009

UK

Cohort

N = 3,336

Incident dementia

0

[101]

65-79/B

2010

Finland

Cohort

N = 1,449

Incident dementia and AD

+

[102]

Mean:71.8/B

2010

Taiwan

Cohort

N = 1,436

Incident cognitive impairment

-

[103]

50y/M

2011

Sweden

Cohort

N = 2,268

Incident dementia and AD

+(non-AD)

[104]

Mean:60.1/B

2011

Finland

Cohort

N = 21,123

Incident dementia and AD

+

[105]

44-69/B

2012

UK

Cohort

N = 7,236

Cognitive decline

+(men)

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(2.2.) Alcohol

Hypothesis: Moderate alcohol consumption is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia

[106]

65+/B

1996

US

Cross-sectional

N = 2,040

Cognitive function

+(J-shaped)

[107]

59-71/B

1997

France

Cross-sectional

N = 1,389

Cognitive function

+ (women)

[76]

75+/B

1998

Australia

Cohort

N = 327

Incident dementia and AD

0

[77]

40-80/B

1998

US

Cohort

N = 1469

Cognitive function

0

[108]

55-88/B

1999

USA

Cohort

N = 1786

Cognitive function

+(U-shaped)

[109]

65+/B

2001

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,836

Cognitive function

+(U-shaped for men, linear for women)

[110]

Mean:70/B

2001

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 15,807

Cognitive impairment

+(U-shaped)

[83]

45-70/B

2002

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,927

Cognitive change

+(women > men) (J-shaped)

[111]

18+/B

2000

US

Cohort

N = 1,448

Cognitive decline

+(women > men) (U-shaped)

[112]

53/B

2003

US

Cross-sectional

N = 10,317

Cognitive function

0

[87]

60+/B

2003

China

Cohort

N = 3,012

Cognitive impairment

-

[113]

65-79/B

2004

Finland

Cohort

N = 1,464

Cognitive function

+(U-shaped) - (ApoE4+)

[114]

65+/B

2004

US

Cohort

N = 4,417

Cognitive function

+(current drinker vs. former or abstainer)

[115]

35-55/B

2004

UK

Cohort

N = 10,308

Cognitive function

+(linear, some cognitive domains)

[116]

65+/B

2005

US

cohort

N = 1,624

Cognitive function

+(current drinker vs. former or abstainer)

[117]

Mean:74/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 1,098

Cognitive function and decline

+(J-shaped)

[118]

43-53/B

2005

UK

Cohort

N = 1,764

Cognitive decline

Linear + (slower memory decline: men) -(faster psychomotor speed decline: women)

[119]

20-24,40-44,60-64/B

 

Australia

Cross-sectional

N = 7,485

Cognitive function

J-shaped + (light drinkers vs. abstainers)

[120]

70-81/W

2005

US

Cohort

N = 11,102

Cognitive function and decline

+(J-shaped) (cognitive decline)

[121]

65-89/M

2006

US

Cross-sectional

N = 760

Cognitive function

+(linear, J-shaped)

[122]

40+/B

2006

US

Cohort

N = 1,428

Cognitive decline

+(linear)

[123]

65-79/B

2006

Finland

Cross-sectional

N = 1,341

Cognitive function

+(linear)

[124]

65-84/B

2007

US

Cohort

N = 1,445

Incident MCI and MCI→ dementia

+(U-shaped)

[125]

50+/B

2010

China

Cohort

N = 30,499

MCI→ dementia

+(J-shaped)

[126]

50+/B

2010

China

Cross-sectional

N = 9,571-28,537

Cognitive function

+(occasional alcohol use vs. none)

[127]

65+/B

2009

China

Cross-sectional

N = 314

Cognitive impairment

+(U-shaped)

[128]

70/B

2011

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 922

Cognitive function

+(linear, verbal memory)

[129]

55+/B

2011

US

Cohort

N = 1,337

Cognitive function

0 -(executive function)

[130]

55+/B

2011

France

Cross-sectional

N = 4,073

Cognitive function

-(high alcohol use, Low SES)

[131]

45+/B

2012

US

Cohort

N = 571

Cognitive decline

+(heavy drinking)

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(2.3.) Physical activity

Hypothesis: Physical activity is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD)

[132]

70+/B

2001

Hong Kong

Cohort

N = 2030

Cognitive impairment

+

[133]

65+/B

2001

Canada

Cohort

N = 4615

Incident cognitive impairment and AD

+

[134]

65-84/M

2001

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 347

Cognitive decline

+(ApoE4+)

[135]

65+/F

2001

US

Cohort

N = 5,925

Cognitive decline

+

[136]

75+/B

2003

US

Cohort

N = 469

Incident dementias (AD, VaD and others)

+

[137]

71-93/M

2004

US

Cohort

N = 2257

Incident dementia and AD

+

[138]

65+/B

2004

US

Cohort

N = 1146

Cognitive decline

+

[139]

80+/M

2004

European countries

Cohort

N = 295

Cognitive decline

+

[140]

70-81/W

2004

US

Cohort

N = 18766

Cognitive decline

+

[141]

65+/M

2005

US

Cohort

N = 3375

Incident dementia and AD

+(ApoE4-)

[142]

65-79/B

2005

Sweden

Cohort

N = 1449

Incident dementia and AD

+

[143]

65+/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 4055

Cognitive decline

-

[144]

75+/B

2006

Sweden

Cohort

N = 776

Incident dementia

+

[145]

65+/B

2006

US

Cohort

N = 1740

Incident dementia and AD

+

[146]

65+/W

2010

US

Cross-sectional

N = 9344

Cognitive impairment

+

[147]

60+/B

2008

Greece

Cohort

N = 732

Cognitive impairment

+

[148]

71-92/M

2008

US

Cohort

N = 2263

Dementia

+

[149]

70+/B

2009

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 668

Cognitive decline

+

[100]

90-108/B

2009

China

Cross-sectional

N = 681

Cognitive impairment

+

[150]

65+/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 1880

Incident AD

+

[151]

70-79/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 2509

Cognitive function and decline

+

[152]

Mean:51y/B

2010

Iceland

Cohort

N = 4945

Cognitive function and dementia

+

[153]

55+/B

2010

Germany

Cohort

N = 3903

Incident cognitive impairment

+

[154]

60+/B

2010

US

Cohort

N = 5903

Cognitive function

+

[155]

65+/W

2010

US

Cross-sectional

N = 9344

Cognitive function and impairment

+

[156]

Mean:82/B

2012

US

Cohort

N = 716

AD Cognitive decline

+

[157]

40-84/B

2012

US

Cohort

N = 405 (40–59 years) N = 342 (60–84 years)

Cognitive function

+

[158]

65+/B

2012

US

Cohort

N = 2491

Incident dementia & AD

+

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(3) Nutritional

       

(3.1) Caffeine(coffee or tea)

Hypothesis: Caffeine consumption is protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia

[159]

18+/B

1993

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 9,003

Cognitive function

+(caffeine)

[160]

Mean: 73/B

2002

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,528

Cognitive function

0(coffee)

[161]

24-81/B

2003

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,376

Cognitive change

0(caffeine)

[162]

70+/B

2006

Japan

Cross-sectional

N = 1,003

Cognitive impairment

+(green tea)

[163]

Mean ~ 75/M

2007

Finland, the Netherlands and Italy

Cohort

N = 667

Cognitive decline

+(coffee, J-shaped)

[164]

55+/B

2008

Singapore

Cohort

N = 1,438

Cognitive impairment and decline

+(tea)

[165]

65-79/B

2009

Finland

Cohort

N = 1,409

Incident dementia and AD

+(coffee), 0(tea)

[100]

90+/B

2009

China

Cross-sectional

N = 681

Cognitive impairment

+(tea, men)

[166]

65+/B

2009

Finland

Cohort

N = 2,606

Cognitive function, incident dementia and MCI

0(coffee)

[167]

70-74/B

2009

Norway

Cross-sectiona

N = 2,031

Cognitive impairment

+(tea)

[168]

17-92/B

2009

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 3,223

Cognitive function

0(caffeine)

[169]

70/B

2010

UK

Cohort

N = 923

Cognitive function

+(coffee); −(tea)

[170]

55+/B

2010

Singapore

Cross-sectional

N = 716

Cognitive function

+(tea)

[171]

65+/B

2010

France

Cohort

N = 641

Cognitive decline

+(caffeine, women)

[172]

65+/B

2010

Portugal

Cohort

N = 648

Cognitive decline

+(caffeine, women)

[173]

65+/B

2011

US

Cohort

N = 4,809

Cognitive decline

+(caffeine, women)

[174]

Mean:54/M

2011

US

Cohort

N = 3,494

Incident dementia and cognitive impairment

0(caffeine)

[175]

Mean:91.4/B

2012

Singapore

Cohort

N = 7,139

Cognitive change

+(tea)

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(3.2) Antioxidants/Vitamin E

Hypothesis: Antioxidants, including vitamin E, are protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD)

[176]

55-95/B

1996

Netherlands

cohort

N = 5,182

Cognitive function

+

[177]

66-97/B

1998

US

Cohort

N = 1,059

Cognitive function

0

[178]

65+/B

1998

US

Cohort

N = 633

Incident AD

+

[179]

5075/B

1998

Austria

Cross-sectional

N = 1,769

Cognitive performance

+(Vit. E)

[180]

71-93/M

2000

Hawaii

Cohort

N = 3,385

Incident AD, VaD, MD and OD

+(VaD)

[181]

48-67/B

2000

US

Cross-sectional

N = 12,187

Cognitive performance

0

[182]

55+/B

2002

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 5,395

Incident AD

+

[183]

65+/B

2002

US

Cohort

N = 815

Incident AD

+(Vit. E, ApoE4)

[184]

65-102/B

2002

US

Cohort

N = 2,889

Cognitive decline

+

[185]

65+/B

2003

US

Cohort

N = 2,969

Incident dementia Incident AD

0

[186]

70-79/W

2003

US

Cohort

N = 14,968

Cognitive function

+(Vit. E)

[187]

65+/B

2003

US

Cohort

N = 980

Incident AD

0

[188]

45-68/M

2004

US

Cohort

N = 2,459

Incident dementia and AD

0

[189]

65+/B

2004

US

Cohort

N = 4,740

Incident and prevalent AD

+

[190]

65+/B

2005

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 1,033

Prevalent dementia and cognitive impairment

+

[191]

55+/B

2005

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 3,717

Prevalent AD

0

[192]

65-105/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 616

Incident Dementia Incident AD

0

[193]

65+/B

2005

Canada

Cohort

N = 894

Cognitive decline Dementia

+

[194]

65+/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 3,718

Incident AD Cognitive function

+

[195]

Mean:73.5/B

2007

France

Cross-sectional

N = 589

Cognitive function

+

[196]

60+/W

2007

US

Cohort

N = 526

Cognitive impairment

+(Vit. E)

[197]

65+/B

2007

US

Cohort

N = 3,831

Cognitive function

+

[198]

65+/B

2008

US

Cohort

N = 3,376

Cognitive function

+

[199]

65+/B

2008

US

Cohort

N = 2,969

Incident Dementia Incident AD

0

[200]

65+/B

2008

Italy

Cohort

N = 761

Cognitive impairment

+(Vit. E Sub-type)

[201]

70+/W

2010

US

Cohort

N = 16,010

Cognitive function & decline

+(cognitive function)

[202]

70/B

2011

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 882

Cognitive function

0

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(3.3) Homocysteine

Hypothesis: Homocysteine is a risk factor for poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia (including AD)

[203]

55+/B

1999

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 702

Cognitive function and decline

0

[204]

60+/B

2002

UK

Cross-sectional

N = 391

Cognitive function

+

[205]

55+/B

2002

The Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 1,077

Cognitive function

+

[206]

Mean:76/B

2002

US

Cohort

N = 1,092

Incident AD

+

[207]

60+/B

2003

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,789

Global cognitive function

+

[208]

Mean:73/B

2003

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 650

Cognitive function

+

[209]

65+/B

2004

US

Cohort

N = 679

Incident and prevalent AD

0

[210]

Mean:72/B

2005

Turkey

Cohort

N = 1,249

Incident dementia, AD, MCI

0

[211]

60+/B

2005

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,789

Cognitive impairment and dementia

0

[212]

40-82/B

2005

US

Cross-sectional

N = 2,096

Cognitive function

+(60 + y)

[213]

70-79/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 499

Cognitive function and decline

+(cognitive function)

[214]

85+/B

2005

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 599

Cognitive impairment and decline

+(with impairment)

[215]

65+/B

2005

Switzerland

Cohort

N = 623

Incident MCI, dementia, AD and VaD

+

[216]

60+/B

2005

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,789

Cognitive impairment and dementia

+

[217]

Mean:74/B

2005

Italy

Cohort

N = 816

Incident AD

+

[218]

50-70/B

2005

US

Cross-sectional

N = 1,140

Cognitive function

+

[219]

50-85/M

2005

US

Cohort

N = 321

Cognitive decline

+

[220]

Mean:62/B

2006

US

Cross-sectional

N = 812

Cognitive function

+

[221]

55+/B

2006

China

Cross-sectional

N = 451

Cognitive function

+

[222]

Mean:59/B

2006

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 345

Cognitive function

+

[223]

65+/B

2007

UK

Cohort

N = 1,648

Cognitive decline

+

[224]

60-101/B

2007

US

Cohort

N = 1,779

Incident dementia and MCI

+

[225]

60-85/B

2007

South Korea

Cross-sectional

N = 1,215

Prevalent MCI

+

[226]

26-98/B

2008

US

Cross-sectional

N = 911

Cognitive function

+(ApoE4+)

[227]

65+/B

2008

Korea

Cross-sectional

N = 607

Cognitive function

+

[228]

Mean:72/B

2008

Korea

Cohort

N = 518

Incident dementia and AD

+

[229]

Mean:77/B

2009

US

Cohort

N = 516

Prevalent and incident MCI

0

[230]

38-85/B

2010

Sweden

Cohort

N = 488

Incident dementia

0

[231]

65+/B

2010

The Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,076

Cognitive decline

+

[232]

Mean:78/W

2011

Germany

Cross-sectional

N = 420

Cognitive function

+

[233]

38-60/W

2011

Sweden

Cohort

N = 1,368

Incident dementia and AD

+

[234]

70-89/M

2012

Australia

Cohort

N = 4,227

Incident dementia

+

[235]

70-89/M

2012

Australia

Cohort

N = 1,778

Incident cognitive impairment

+

Study

Age/gender

Year

Country

Design

Sample size

Outcome

Finding

(3.4) n-3 fatty acids

Hypothesis: n-3 fatty acids are protective against poorer cognitive function, higher rate of cognitive decline and dementia(including AD)

[236]

69-89/M

1997

Netherlands

cohort

N = 476

Cognitive impairment & decline

0

[237]

55+/B

1997

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 5,386

Incident dementia and AD

+

[238]

55+/B

2002

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 5,395

Incident dementia and AD

0

[239]

65-94/B

2003

US

Cohort

N = 815

Incident AD

+

[240]

45-70/B

2004

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

N = 1,613

Cognitive function

+

[241]

65+/B

2005

US

Cohort

N = 3,718

Cognitive decline

0

[242]

65+/B

2007

France

Cohort

N = 8,085

Incident dementia and AD

+(ApoE4-)

[243]

50+/B

2007

US

Cohort

N = 2,251

Cognitive decline

+(hypertensive, Dyslipidemic)

[244]

Mean:76/B

2007

Italy

Cross-sectional

N = 935

Prevalent dementia

+

[245]

50-70/B

2007

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 404-807

Cognitive function and change

+(change)

[246]

50+/B

2008

US

Cohort

N = 2,251-7,814

Cognitive decline

+(hypertensives)

[247]

65-80/B

2008

Finland

Cohort

N = 1,449

MCI and cognitive function

+

[248]

Mean:78/B

2008

France

Cohort

N = 1,214

Incident dementia

+

[249]

65+/B

2009

Multi-national

Cross-sectional

N = 14,960

Prevalent dementia

+

[250]

55+/B

2009

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 5,395

Incident dementia and AD

0

[251]

65+/B

2009

Canada

Cohort

N = 663

Incident dementia or AD

0

[252]

Mean:68/M

2009

Netherlands

Cohort

N = 1,025

Cognitive function

0

[253]

76-82/W

2009

France

Cohort

N = 4,809

Cognitive decline

+

[254]

Mean:75/B

2010

Spain

Cross-sectional

N = 304

Cognitive impairment

+

[255]

35-54/B

2010

US

Cross-sectional

N = 280

Cognitive function

+

[256]

55+/B

2011

Singapore

Cohort

N = 1,475

Cognitive function and decline

+(supplements)

[257]

Mean:~64/B

2011

France

Cohort

N = 3,294

Cognitive impairment

+

[258]

65+/B

2011

France

Cohort

N = 1,228

Cognitive decline

+(ApoE4+; depressed)

  1. +Hypothesized association; − Association against hypothesis; 0: No association.
  2. Abbreviations: AD: Alzheimer’s Disease; ApoE: Apolipoprotein E; B: Both; M: Men; MCI: Mild Cognitive Impairment; MD = Mixed Dementia; OD = Other dementia; UK: United Kingdom; US: United States; VaD: Vascular Dementia; W: Women.