Table 2 Examples of chemical incidents resulting in regulatory actions

Nypro UK Ltd, Flixborough, UK

1 Jun 1974

Explosion and fire – release of 30 tonnes of cyclohexane resulting in a vapour cloud explosion

28 killed; 89 injured, damage for several km

Influenced Seveso 1 content

[6, 7, 34]

Led to the UK Health & Safety at Work Act & establishment of UK Health & Safety Executive

Hoffmann LaRoche, Seveso, Italy

10 Jul 1976

Runaway thermal reaction – toxic and corrosive chemical cloud formed, containing phenols, sodium hydroxide, and ~2 kg of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)

Over 5,700 residents evacuated; 220,000 people under medical surveillance; 447 cases of skin lesions or chloracne; >3000 animals dead; 80,000 animals slaughtered; affected a 18 sq km area; 20 billion lire paid in compensation

Led to Seveso 1 Directive

[5–7]

Union Carbide India Ltd, Bhopal, India

3 Dec 1984

Runaway reaction – 30–40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate released which drifted over a crowded working class neighbourhood; no warning for people within the area surrounding the plant

2,500-6,000 deaths; >200,000 injured; >50,000 survivors experiencing chronic ailments such as pulmonary fibrosis, bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema, recurrent chest infections, keratopathy and corneal opacities

Led to changes in Seveso I thresholds and proximity to residential populations, influenced land use planning provisions

[5–7, 31, 32]

Led to USA Emergency Planning & Community Right to Know Act & CMA CAER Program

Sandoz, Basel, Switzerland

1 Nov 1986

Warehouse fire – 30 tonnes of chemicals released into air and water (dinitro-ortho-cresol, organochlorines, organophosphates, ~150 kg mercury)

Massive contamination of the Rhine, 500,000 fish killed; pollution travelled over 500 km

Extended Seveso I to include storage activities

[6, 7]

Phillips 66 Co, Pasadena, Texas, USA

23 Oct 1989

Explosion and fire – high density polyethylene production – release of >85,000 lbs of highly flammable process gases

23 deaths; more than 130 injured; over $1 billion in losses

Triggered 1990 USA Clean Air Act & Risk Management Program (RMP) & Process Safety Management (PSM) process standards

[6, 34]

SE Fireworks, Enschede, The Netherlands

13 May 2000

Explosion and fire – 177 tonnes of fireworks exploded

22 killed; 947 injured; 2000 homes destroyed

Led to changes to definition of explosives in Seveso II

[5–7]

Aurul S.A., Baia Mara, Romania

30 Jan 2000

Breach in tailings dam – 100,000 m³ of cyanide rich tailings (cyanide plus heavy metals including copper) released into rivers feeding Danube and Black Sea

Contamination of water supply at 24 locations affecting 250,000 people; massive fish kill; destruction of aquatic species; pollution of ~ 200 km of river basin

Extended application of Seveso II

[6, 7]

Grande Paroisse, Toulouse, France

21 Sep 2001

Explosion and fire – 300–400 tonnes of downgraded ammonium nitrate

30 deaths; 2,242 injured (20 seriously), 5,079 treated for stress; 25,000 homes damaged; 5 schools destroyed; 1,000 factories damaged; toxic chemicals leaked into river

Changed application of Seveso II with respect to ammonium nitrate

[5–7]