Table 5 Main empirical findings and the evidence on the three models
Findings | The social-cultural model | The economic model | The governance model |
|---|---|---|---|
1. Informal payments are widespread in outpatient and inpatient services. | + | - | + |
2. More patients (52.8%) pay informal payments in inpatient care than in outpatient care (23.3%). | - | + | +/- |
3. The amounts paid in inpatient are larger than in outpatient care (fee-for-service) | - | + | - |
4. Almost 61.7 of the payments in outpatient and 68.6% in inpatient care are expected or requested. | - | - | + |
5. Positive but not statistically significant association of per capita income with probability and amounts of informal payments. | - | +/- | +/- |
6. The elderly are less likely to make informal payments (especially in outpatient). | - | + | +/- |
7. Rural areas patients seeking care in Tirana are more likely to pay and to have been explicitly requested an informal payment. | - | +/- | + |
8. Vulnerable patients (higher ages and poor health rated) are more likely to pay in inpatient care but not in outpatient care. | - | - | + |
9. Higher amount paid in hospitals located in Tirana. | - | + | - |
10. Rural patients visiting Tirana's hospitals are more likely to be requested to make informal payments. | - | +/- | + |
11. Higher educated patients pay more in inpatient care where the role of health insurance is weak and services are more intense. | - | + | +/- |
12. Primary education patients are requested to pay in inpatient services. | - | - | + |