The parent–child relationship and adolescent alcohol use: a systematic review of longitudinal studies

BMC Public Health

Table 4 Level of evidence for the association between PCR as protective and as risk factor and types of alcohol behavior

Parent–child relationship	Alcohol use	Consistency of findings^c (no of findings in high quality studies)	Level of evidence
Protective^a	Initiation of (monthly) use	6 s (0), 16 ns (1)	Inconclusive
	Frequency and/or amount of use	7 s (2), 21 ns (11)	Weak
	(Initiation of) heavy drinking	4 s (0), 5 ns (2)	Inconclusive
	Other^d	0 s (0), 5 ns (2)	Inconclusive
Total		17 (2), 47 (16)	Weak
Risk^b	Initiation of (monthly) use	0 s (0), 2 ns (2)	Inconclusive
	Frequency and/or amount of use	1 s (0), 6 ns (1)	Inconclusive
	(Initiation of) heavy drinking	0 s (0), 2 ns (0)	Inconclusive
	Other^d	0 s (0), 0 s (0)	Inconclusive
Total		1 s (0), 10 ns (3)	Inconclusive

Abbreviation: s=significant, ns=not significant.
^a Positive PCR (e.g., warmth, support).
^b Negative PCR (e.g., conflict, rejection).
^c Some studies showed more than one association and therefore total number of findings is higher than total number of studies.
^d Types of alcohol behavior that could not be classified in any of the other categories (e.g., a composite score of frequency of use, frequency of heavy use, and frequency of drunkenness).

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