From: Diabetes mellitus type 2 in urban Ghana: characteristics and associated factors
Characteristics | Total | Controls | Diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2) | DM2 without hypertension | DM2 with hypertension |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. | 1466a | 377 | 675 | 251 | 424 |
Age (years) | 50.6 ± 15.3 | 38.8 ± 14.8 | 54.7 ± 13.4* | 48.6 ± 14.0* | 58.3 ± 11.6* |
Sex (female, %) | 75.9 (1113) | 76.4 (288) | 74.7 (504) | 71.7 (180) | 76.2 (323) |
Ethnic group (Akan, %) | 87.2 (1277) | 84.4 (318) | 87.8 (592) | 83.6 (209) | 90.3 (383)†|
Residence (Kumasi metropolitan, %) | 73.8 (1079) | 79.3 (299) | 70.8 (476)†| 68.7 (171)†| 72.1 (305)†|
Clinical data | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
   Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/l) | 6.28 ± 3.52 | 4.5 ± 0.7 | 8.28 ± 4.33* | 9.0 ± 4.6* | 7.92 ± 4.11* |
   Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 134.5 ± 23.2 | 116.0 ± 11.3 | 138.3 ± 23.9* | 118.6 ± 12.6†| 149.8 ± 21.3* |
   Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 84.8 ± 12.6 | 76.0 ± 7.5 | 85.1 ± 12.1* | 76.5 ± 7.4 | 90.2 ± 11.4* |
   Triglycerides (mmol/l) | 1.44 ± 0.74 | 1.15 ± 0.56 | 1.55 ± 0.81* | 1.40 ± 0.64* | 1.65 ± 0.88* |
   Total cholesterol (mmol/l) | 6.08 ± 1.75 | 5.73 ± 1.61 | 5.95 ± 1.71 | 5.63 ± 1.54 | 6.13 ± 1.78†|
   HDL-cholesterol (mmol/l) | 1.35 ± 0.40 | 1.38 ± 0.41 | 1.29 ± 0.40* | 1.31 ± 0.42†| 1.28 ± 0.39* |
   LDL-cholesterol (mmol/l) | 4.05 ± 1.41 | 3.82 ± 1.31 | 3.92 ± 1.36 | 3.66 ± 1.24 | 4.07 ± 1.41†|
   Urinary albumin (mg/l) | 13.0 (3.3-149.9) | 9.0 (4.9-150.1) | 14.5 (3.3-150.1)* | 10.5 (4.9-150.0) | 17.5 (3.3-150.0)* |
Anthropometric data | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
   Waist-to-hip ratio | 0.88 ± 0.08 | 0.83 ± 0.09 | 0.91 ± 0.07* | 0.89 ± 0.07* | 0.92 ± 0.07* |
   Body mass index (kg/m2) | 25.8 ± 5.25 | 24.6 ± 4.9 | 25.9 ± 5.1* | 24.8 ± 5.3 | 26.5 ± 4.8* |
   Body fat by BIA (%)b | 30.2 ± 9.9 | 28.8 ± 9.6 | 29.8 ± 10.1†| 27.9 ± 10.9 | 30.9 ± 9.4†|
History and activity | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Diabetes family history (yes, %) | 39.9 (585) | 26.3 (99) | 57.9 (391)* | 59.0 (148)* | 57.3 (243)* |
Hypertension family history (yes, %) | 41.5 (608) | 30.2 (114) | 40.7 (275)* | 31.1 (78) | 46.5 (197)* |
Smoking status (ever, %) c | 5.7 (84) | 3.7 (14) | 7.3 (49)†| 7.2 (18) | 7.3 (31)†|
Type of main work (light, %) | 88.7 (1250) | 92.3 (335) | 86.1 (558)†| 83.8 (202)†| 87.5 (356)†|
Working time (h/week) | 49.3 ± 22.1 | 48.4 ± 18.3 | 49.0 ± 24.0 | 50.0 ± 24.4 | 48.1 ± 23.6 |
Recreational sports (yes, %) | 21.2 (311) | 22.5 (85) | 22.2 (150) | 19.5 (49) | 23.8 (101) |
Energy expenditure (MJ/d) | 6.30 ± 3.57 | 5.34 ± 3.00 | 6.84 ± 3.70* | 6.41 ± 3.54* | 7.10 ± 3.78* |
Socio-economic data | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
Literacy (illiterate, %) | 35.2 (514) | 21.3 (80) | 45.8 (308)* | 45.0 (113)†| 46.3 (195)* |
Unemployed (%) | 26.4 (386) | 9.8 (37) | 36.9 (248)* | 24.7 (62)* | 44.2 (186)* |
No. of people per household | 5 (1-100) | 5 (1-70) | 6 (1-100)* | 6 (1-100)* | 6 (1-100)* |
Wealth scored | 0.58 ± 0.17 | 0.60 ± 0.15 | 0.57 ± 0.18†| 0.55 ± 0.18* | 0.58 ± 0.18 |